Archive for February 2017

Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

natural green

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Title: Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Soil erosion refers to as the movement of soil particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process . It occurs at relativ...

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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil erosion
refers to as <b>the movement of soil
particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process</b>. It
occurs at relatively slow rate and its magnitude is unnoticed. Wind and water
are the major two agents of natural soil erosion. Due to the anthropogenic
activities, quality of the soil is degraded. Thereby soil makes more vulnerable
to soil erosion. Continuous removal of topsoil from agricultural lands affects
the crop yield and environment quality.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Driven factors of soil erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Deforestation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Cut down and remove of vegetation from land left bare soil.  It makes the soil more vulnerable to both wind
and water erosion. Removal of vegetation directly affects the organic matter
content in the soil. Due to the low organic matter availability, soil particles
are not aggregated together. Fine soil particles of topsoil are more easily
wash away or blown from the surface. Due to the absence of vegetation wind has the opportunity to directly contact the soil surface.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Overgrazing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Unregulated grazing of livestock reduces the thickness of the grass layer of
pasture lands so it makes more vulnerable to erosion. Livestock press topsoil
into the subsoil. It reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil. So it increases the
runoff. Thereby it increases the amount of soil to move through the water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Tillage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Although tillage brings lots of advantages for agriculture, improper tillage
practices cause negative consequences. Tillage buries topsoil and brings
subsoil into the upper surface. It increases the surface area of soil exposed to
wind and rain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Construction of roads and other
infrastructure: Soils has to be removed in large scale in road and railways
constructions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mining</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: gem mining
and coal mining processes dig and remove a large portion of topsoil and subsoil
from the land. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Water erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: runoff is able to dislodge the fine
soil particles from the soil surface. It causes onsite effects and offsite
effects. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Gully erosion: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">As
a result of the high flow of velocity, the deep channel is formed by the removal of soil
and soft rocks. Riverbank is subjected to gully erosion due to the high
velocity of river flow. After heavy rain, gully erosion also can be observed at the bottom of the sloppy area.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sheet erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
It is the removal of the soil particles from the surface by a thin layer of
water. It removes soil more uniformly over the surface. As it happens at a slow
rate, it cannot be easily observed until a significant amount of topsoil is lost.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Rill erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
It forms well defined small channels over the surface as a result of strong
surface runoff. It can be observed in steep land and lands with gradual
sloping. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Wind erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
It is abraded, transports, and deposes of soil by the action of wind. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Onsite effects of
erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce crop yields</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: topsoil is the most fertile layer of soil that directly affects plant growth. It contains organic matter, nutrients, and microorganisms in large
quantities. It is continuously replenished by litterfall, organic matter decomposition,
nutrients cycling, and mineral weathering. After the loss of topsoil, subsoil falls
to fulfill all nutrient requirements of the plant which results in a reduction of crop
yelled. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce land stability</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Continuous removal of soil makes the land prepare for the
landslides.it causes loss of people, ecosystem and properties. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Offsite effects: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Siltation of aquatic bodies</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Soils particles that are washed away from the land tend to
deposit at the bottom of the lakes or streams. It reduces the water holding capacity
of the aquatic body which increases the flood risk of the area. Soils deposit in the
bottom vegetation. So it interferes with the breeding places and habitats.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Eutrophication:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">
Excess nutrients including phosphates and nitrates bound soil particles to accelerate
the growth of algae in the aquatic ecosystem. The sudden increase of algal
growth refers to as the algal bloom. Some algal species produce toxic
substances that are toxic to animal and plant life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Aquatic pollution:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> The soil acts as itself pollution. Dissolved soil increases the
turbidity which results in a reduction of light penetration through the aquatic
bodies. Thereby the productivity of deep layers of aquatic bodies is reduced. In
addition to nutrients, pesticides also attach to soil particles toxic to
aquatic animals. They tend to accumulate through the food web and cause detrimental
effects on the animals at the top levels. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Following
actions are suggested to minimize the erosion by wind or water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mulching</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
organic mulches including fiber woods and straw, plastic and rubber mulching
and geotextile material is used for agriculture to minimize soil erosion.
It prevents the direct exposure of soils to winds. In addition to erosion
protection, organic mulch protects the moisture content in the soil and
improves the soil structure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Avoid overgrazing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: it is allowed livestock to feed on pasture land till a certain limit to
recover the vegetation again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Add organic matter</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Organic matter is able to glue small soil particles together to form
large aggregates. So soils cannot be detached from the land. Compost can be
added as the organic matter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Maintain vegetation cover</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: The root systems of the plant helps to hold the soil particles in
the places. They secrete glues which are helped to bind fine soil particles into
large aggregates. Thereby they protect soils against water erosion. Thick
vegetation cover prevents reduces wind velocity and does not allow it to contact the soil. Thereby it protects the soil against wind erosion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">No-tillage or conservation tillage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">: Conservation tillage means to increase crop yield while taking
actions to protect the soil against wind erosion and water erosion. Here
tillage is not used from sawing to harvest or use minimum tillage.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

Soil erosion refers to as the movement of soil particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process. It occurs at relatively slow rate and its magnitude is unnoticed. Wind and water are …

22 Feb 2017

Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture

natural green

Link Author

Title: Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Biofertilizer refer to as the use of living microorganisms to provide primary nutrients and increase the growth of plants . The micr...

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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofertilizer refer to as <b>the use of living microorganisms to provide primary nutrients and
increase the growth of plants</b>. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The microorganisms may inhabit in the rhizosphere
or inner or surface plant tissues. In here, biochemical reactions of
microorganisms are supported in the agriculture to increase the yield. They
improve the nutrients availability to the plants. Due to the negative
consequences of chemical fertilizers, the farmers tend to use biofertilizers for
their crop production.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofertilizer are divided into three groups as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Phosphorous fertilizers: It is used
to optimize the phosphors level in the soil. It does not depend on the crop to
be grown.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nitrogen fertilizers: It is used to
optimize nitrogen level in the soil. Since nitrogen requirements vary with the
soil type, types of nitrogen fertilizer depend on the type of nitrogen
fertilizers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Organic fertilizers: the
biodegradable organics including animal and plant waste is degraded by aerobic
respiratory microorganisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The types of biofertilizers are discussed below. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nitrogen fixers</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Nitrogen is considered as a primary
nutrient for plant. Even though the nitrogen accounts for 78% of atmosphere gas
content, plant cannot absorb directly nitrogen from the atmosphere.  Nitrogen is released into soil trough
decomposition of organic matter. Some microorganisms present in the soil are also
able to fix atmospheric nitrogen.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Free living bacte</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ria: they inhabit in the soil. They do not form mutual beneficial
symbiotic relationship with plants roots. 
Bacteria with different oxygen requirements are available to fix
nitrogen. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    
</span></span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: Aerobic: <i>Azotobacter<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">                                                                                     
</span>i.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">     
</span></span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anaerobic: <i>Clostridium polymyxa <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbiotic fixers</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: They from mutual beneficial symbiotic relationship with roots of
legumes. The plant tissues make nodules where the symbiotic bacteria inhabit.
They fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. The ammonia is available when plant
roots die or legume plants are buried directly as the cover crop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    
</span></span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: <i>Rhizobium<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbiotic cyanobacteria</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Cyanobacteria are one of the photosynthetic organisms. Some
of them are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. They form symbiotic relationship
with roots of plant including <i>Cycads, </i>liverworts
and <i>Azolla</i>. In addition to nitrogen,
they add organic matter to the soil through their photosynthesis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: <i>Anabaena</i> and <i>Nostoc<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         But among them<i> Azolla- Anabaena </i>relationship fixes more nitrogen compare to the
legume plants so aquatic environments like rice fields use <i>Azolla- Anabaena</i> to increase the yield. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Phosphorous
solubilizing bacteria</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Phosphorous is also essential nutrient for plant. Phosphorous availability for
plant determines solubility and concentration of Phosphorous ions. It is in
insoluble forms which is unable to absorb into plants. Inorganic Phosphorous is
added to soil by weathering of parent rock. Organic Phosphorous is added to the
soil by decomposition of organic matter. The Phosphorous solubilizing bacteria
convert the insoluble Phosphorous into soluble Phosphorous which can be
absorbed by plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: <i>Clostridium polymyxa, Bacillus, Enterobactor<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mycorrhizae</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Some fungi found in the soul form
mutual beneficial symbiotic relationship with roots of higher plants. The
formation of Mycorrhizae is an infection to the plants. Fungi spores germinate
near the vicinity of the root zone. Fungal hyphae penetrate and develop into
the cortex of the roots. They show filamentous growth on the root surface. The
fungal hyphae from arbuscule which is finely divided hyphae. It acts as the
nutrients exchange interface between plant and fungal hyphae.  Those fungi association help plants to absorb
nutrients in large area while plant provides organic food for them. It helps to
correct the phosphors level of plants. It absorbs phosphors from large area and
makes them soluble for the plant absorption. In addition to phosphorous uptake,
Mycorrhizae secrete growth hormones for plants which are able to accelerate the
growth. They promote the symbiotic nitrogen associations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use
of Biofertilizer is more advantageous over chemical fertilizers as follows. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofertilizer are required in small
quantity: small sized Inoculum of microorganisms is used to inoculate the seeds
or plants surfaces. As the living microorganisms are used as the Biofertilizer,
small number of microorganism can reproduce and form large colonies. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Increase yield: They are able to
increase yield 15-30% by providing essential nutrients. Nutrients availability
directly affects the yield. The increasing of yield also varies with type of
biofertilizers because capability of different microorganism differs in the
nutrients. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce pollution: The farmers tend to
add chemical fertilizers in large quantities as they intend increase yield
through increasing nutrients availability. But plants absorb nutrients till
certain extent. Excess nutrients remain in the soil. They are washed away by
runoff. It causes eutrophication in aquatic bodies. But biofertilizers such as</span>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mycorrhizae are capable of
absorbing phosphorus in large area so no need of excess chemical fertilizers to
be added.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Improve soil structure: fungal hyphae
help to bind small soil particles together into large aggregates. Thereby it
increases the soil porosity. So water can more easily drained thorough the
soil. It also increases the water holding capacity of the soil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture

Biofertilizer refer to as the use of living microorganisms to provide primary nutrients and increase the growth of plants. The microorganisms may inhabit in the rhizosphere or inner or surface plant…

20 Feb 2017

Ecotourism and Its Environmental Impacts

natural green

Link Author

Title: Ecotourism and Its Environmental Impacts
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Ecotourism is “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people." ...

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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ecotourism is
“Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and
improves the well-being of local people." <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                                                       
(TIES, 1990)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ecotourism is initiated with approaches to minimize the
negative impacts of traditional tourism on the environment and enhance the
cultural interaction of local people with tourists.  The governments can increase the awareness of
local people and gain support from them for conservation of regional natural
resources. While conserving the nature, ecotourism provides good income for
governments and rural people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Principles of Ecotourism</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is based on conservation,
communities, and sustainable travel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 75.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages
of ecotourism can be discussed as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 75.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Environmental Conservation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Ecotourism help to conserve all types of ecosystems
including forests, coral reefs and mangroves. The governments tend to preserve
the existing natural ecosystems and reforestation of the deforested area.
Tourists and local communities are encouraged to conserve ecosystems. The taxes
based on tourism, enters fee and donation are directed as funding on
conservation actions, reestablishments and recover the ecosystem damage due to
the tourism. Most tourists interest and join voluntarily for the conservation
programs including sea turtle conserving program. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enhance the living standard of the local community</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: ecotourism give direct employment
for the rural people. They can find their job opportunity from transport,
tourist hotels, guidance, conservation programs and constructions. The rural
people can start their self-employment without joining directly into the
ecotourism. They can open stores and sell local delicious foods. Tourists
prefer to buy clothes, juallary, music instruments and bags which are made from
local materials. Infrastructure is developed to attract more tourists which are
results in indirect the development in the rural area. The construction of
roads, drinking water, electricity, health facilities improve the</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">living standards of rural
communities. The volunteers in the groups of tourists are willing to help local
people to improve their health and education. They may conduct educational
programs and clinic. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although
ecotourism provides lots of benefits it is also associated with some
disadvantages due to the misbehavior of both tourists and local communities and
poor management as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Habitat degradation and fragmentation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: construction of roads, accommodations and other infrastructures
distrusts the habitats and ecosystems. The animals go through to roads are hit
and killed by the vehicles carrying tourists. Construction may remove the
vegetation that offers food, shelter and breeding places for native animal
communities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Threaten the animal biodiversity</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The tourists tend to hunt in natural forests and fish in
the coral ecosystems. It may leads to overexploitation and threatens the native
and endemic animal species. Thereby it reduces the local animal and plant diversity.
The annoying actions including noising of tourists disturb the animal behavior.
Most of the animals do not like to contact with people so that those kind
animals tend to moves another suitable ecosystem where the human influence is
still not a problem. The fire camps within forested areas disturb the pathways
of nocturnal animals including elephants, lions and ant eaters. Wild animals
tend eat the remaining of food thrown away by tourists. These foods may be
wrapped in polythene bags which are accumulated and block the digestive tracks
of animals including the elephants. They left over plastic water bottles,
aluminum cans which are not easily biodegradable and remain within the wild
environment and affect the existence of plant animal communities. The propeller
cuts of boat hit and kill the animals live in the coral ecosystems. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aquatic pollution</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Unregulated boat riding brings serious environmental problems. They
increase the turbulence and reduce light penetration through increasing
turbidity at the most of time. So it kills the plants and algal communities in
bottom of the sea. The gases releases due to fossil fuel burning from boat are
toxic to plant and animal communities. It has been damaged and killed the
entire coral reef communities in most area of the world. Poorly maintained
boats leak oil into water. These oil deposits in the feathers on the sea birds
which make them unable to fly. Oil decreases the light penetration through the
water. It reduce dissolving oxygen through the oil water interface.it disturbs
natural temperature lowering and establishing mechanisms. Thereby it increases
temperature of water. Oil pollution is extremely cost to remove by mechanical
methods. Propeller of boat damages and cut the aquatic vegetation including sea
grasses and seaweeds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil disturbance</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Constructions of roads disturbs the soil. It left soil more vulnerable
to wind and water erosion. Deposition of eroded soil in aquatic systems threats
the aquatic animal and plant life. Use of vehicles for transporting tourists
such as safari jeeps cause soil compaction in forested area which result in
water logged condition because it reduces the infiltration capacity of soil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction of alien invasive species</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: alien invasive species are unintentionally introduced
trough the ecotourism. The vehicles that transporting tourists from urban areas
to rural areas or long distance supports to introduction of alien invasive
species into native areas. The vehicles that are used for construction purposes
are another source of introduction of alien invasive species. The tourists
transporting and recreational ships and boats also cause spread of alien
invasive species in aquatic ecosystems. Recreational boats act as the major
spreading agent of <b><i>Dreissena polymorpha</i></b> between lakes and rivers within Europe. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forest resources exploitation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The large trees grown in the forests are fall down for
constructing tourists’ hotels. Loss of trees directly affects the existence of
the ecosystem as animal community interacts with them. Tress acts as a habitat
for many animal species. Pollinators and seed dispersals directly depend on
tree for their survival. Birds, animals and insects find their breeding places,
nesting places in large trees. Some tourists tend extract forest resources
illegally. Some collect bird eggs, small reptiles, butterflies and moths,
resins from trees, fungal species and piece of corals.  They collect and bring them into their
countries for genetic exploitation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Social impacts</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Young children in rural and coastal areas tend to leave the school and join to
ecotourism to earn money. Tourism persuades small children and girls to employ
as sex workers. Thereby HIV aids transmit from the foreign tourists to local
people. Ecotourism create a way to transport drugs into local communities which
lower the health and income of people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Ecotourism and Its Environmental Impacts

Ecotourism is “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people." …

20 Feb 2017

First Generation Biofuels

natural green

Link Author

Title: First Generation Biofuels
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Biofuels are introduced as the renewable energy resource. Biofuels are borne with high potential to minimize the greenhouse gas emissio...

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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofuels are
introduced as the renewable energy resource. Biofuels are borne with high
potential to minimize the greenhouse gas emission compare to the fossil fuels. <b>The feedstock is used for first generation
biofuels production can be also used as the food crops</b>. Sun flower, <i>Jatropha</i>, soy bean, pram, sugar cane,
wheat, sugar potato and beat are examples for plants that have been used. A
part including seeds, fruits or whole food plant can be used for biofuel
production. Bioalcohol, biodiesel, green diesel, biogas are produced as the
first generation biofuels. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bioalcohol</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is produced from the sugar and
starch rich food crops. Sugar is fermented into alcohol by microorganisms and
enzymes. Bioalcohol includes methanol, ethanol and propanol.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cereal
grains are crushed to release starch. Then these starches are subjected to
process called hydrolysis to convert the cellulosic biomass into fermentable
sugar. Yeast is added and the solution is heated. Invertase acts as the
catalyst and breaks down the sucrose into glucose and fructose. Then these
glucose and fructose reacts with another catalyst, zymase to produce ethanol. Since
the ethanol contain large fraction of water, the distillation process is used
to remove water and increase the concentration of ethanol compare to the
initial solution. The mixture of ethanol and water is heated. As the boiling
point of ethanol is lower than the water, it is converted into vapor phase.
Then ethanol is condensed and separated from the water. Ethanol can be used
directly in the gasoline engines.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biodiesel</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: it is produced from the transesterification
of alcohol and oil which is extracted from the crop plants.  A mixture of methanol or ethanol and biomass
containing fatty acids are mixed and reacted together in the presence of NaOH
as the catalyst. Biodiesel is similar in the composition to fossil diesel.
Biodiesel are fatty acid methyl or ethyl esters. Animal flat, sun flower, soy
bean, pram, vegetable oil, algae are used as the raw materials for biodiesel
production. Biodiesel can be used in directly in petroleum engine of mixture of
biodiesel and petroleum engine can be used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Green diesel</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is produced by using refinery
methods. Large molecules found in vegetable oil are break down into small
hydrocarbon chains at elevated temperature and elevated pressure in the
presence of catalysts. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biogas</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is produced through the
digestion of biomass in an anaerobic digester by anaerobic microorganisms.
Whole crop plants or a part of the plant, residues of crop plant and residues
of other biofuel production can be used as the feedstock for anaerobic
director. Here biomass is converted into methane which combustible gas. It can
be directly used in vehicle engines or cooking ovens. The residue form the
anaerobic digester can be further processed and used as a biofuel or can be
applied as a fertilizer for agriculture. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use
of first generation biofuel has advantages over fossil fuels as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Greenhouse gas mitigation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Biofuels are burned more cleanly than fossil fuels which
result in leaving small quantity of greenhouse gas emission. Use of biodiesel
in vehicle is able to reduce the greenhouse gas emission by 20-60%. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Renewable energy source</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Biofuels can be replenished within short time period.
Fossil fuel is limited in the supply. It takes millions of years to generate
fossil fuel to generate in the underground. So fossil fuel cannot replenish
within short time period. Therefore biofuels are one of the best solutions for
limited fossil fuels. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Provide employment for rural communities</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Preparation of land, sawing,
harvesting and processing of biofuels give opportunity form rural people to
earn considerable income. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Economic security</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The countries where the fossils fuels were not generated as a natural
resources have to export crude oils and other associated products from Middle
East countries. So these countries have to pay extremely high prices for purchase
crude oil and transport them into their country. The processing crude oil into
fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline is also costly. Therefore as countries
can grow crops for biofuel production within their countries, it saves money of
them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although
biofuels are renewable energy source, it also has certain negative consequences
on society, environment and economic as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Threat to food security</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The use of food crops for biofuel generation cause the
increase of the price of food and animal feed. The lands available for
agriculture and fertilizers are used for the growing crops for biofuels.
Thereby it reduces the agricultural production in the world. The world food
supply is restricted for the developed countered for their consumption and
biofuel production while poor country surfing from long time starving.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">High production cost</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: More money has to be pumped into preparation of lands, planting crops,
application of fertilizers and pesticides, harvestings and processing.it can be
manual or mechanical. The use of machines is more effective and cheap even
though its capital cost is high. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Contribution to greenhouse gas emission is considerable</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Even though the burning of biofuel
is more clean, use of machines for preparation of lands, sawing, harvesting is
contributed to the greenhouse gas emission.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The price of the biofuel is expensive</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Due to the high production cost, the biofuels cannot
be sold at reasonable price. Therefore most of people still rely on fossil
fuels. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce biodiversity</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Growing crops for biofuel generation is often monoculture. So it has
relatively low biodiversity.  Forested
areas have to be cleared to be growing food crops. So it disrupts the food webs
and reduces the regional biodiversity. With the growing of crops, animals,
microorganisms and plants pests can be introduced. There is high probability to
spread those pests into natural ecosystems and displace the native species. The
scientists tend to introduce genetically modified plant spices which are insect
pest resistant and increase in energy content for biofuel production. Those GMO
can spread into natural ecosystems and cross with wild species. It may cause
genetic degradation.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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First Generation Biofuels

Biofuels are introduced as the renewable energy resource. Biofuels are borne with high potential to minimize the greenhouse gas emission compare to the fossil fuels. The feedstock is used for first g…

20 Feb 2017

Riparian Buffer and its Environmental Benefits

natural green

Link Author

Title: Riparian Buffer and its Environmental Benefits
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Riparian buffer are the rows of grasses or trees planted along the bank of rivers and streams . It is one of the agroforestry systems. ...

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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Riparian buffer are the rows of
grasses or trees planted along the bank of rivers and streams</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. It is one of the agroforestry systems.
Riparian buffers act as the interface between adjacent terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. They are designed to protect the river or stream banks, control
flood and minimize the non-point aquatic pollution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Planting zones: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Riparian buffer zoned is divided into
sub zones from land towards aquatic bodies as upland zone, transitional zone,
overbank zone, bank zone and toe zone. Large trees and shrubs are planted in
both upland zone and transitional zones. In the</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">overbank zone, Small to medium size shrubs is found.  Plants with flexible stems and creeping stems
including glass are plant in the bank zone so that plant are not damaged by the
extend flood.  Emergent plant species
including sedges are found in the toe zone. Large trees are not planted near
zone aquatic body because they are not able to tolerant to large flood.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Buffer width:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> 
The width of the riparian buffer is the major important factor that
affects the effectiveness of the buffer. Welsch has recommended that width of
the riparian buffer should be 90feets on both sides of the river. But width of
the buffer depends on the adjacent land area and land uses. Small stream with
limited input from adjacent land area should have a small buffer width. But
large stream with large input from adjacent area should have a large buffer
width to protect the stream. Adjacent lands may be used for agriculture,
commercial or residential area.  Agricultural
lands with good management and maintain requires narrow width buffers. Types
and composition of soil also determines the width of the riparian buffers. Soils
with well drained have high rate of infiltration so it reduces the runoff.
Therefore it requires riparian buffer with narrow width. But poorly drained
soils have low rate of infiltration so it increases the runoff. Therefore it
requires riparian buffer with wider width.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Plant section</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: characteristics of the river or
stream bank determine the plants that needed to grow. Most of the plant cannot
survive and grow within a certain range of environmental conditions such as pH,
soil air, soil moisture, and soil type and soil texture. But some are able to
grow in extreme conditions including water logged conditions, acidic or basic
pH. Some grow well even in sandy soil where the moisture and nutrient retention
is relatively low. Therefore the plants that are planted in the riparian buffer
zone are able to tolerate water logged conditions, excess nutrients and
sediments and even withstand in sandy or clay soil. A mixture of pants that
offer fruits, fuel, fertilizer, timber, medicine and nesting places for birds
and other animals can be selected.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Riparian
buffer zones help to enhance quality of aquatic ecosystems while giving other kind
of ecological, economic and social benefits as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Flood control</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Riparian buffers act as obstacle
for incoming water through the surface of the land towards the streams. Thereby
it slows down the surface runoff. The root systems of trees and grasses in the
riparian buffers help to lower the river flow velocity. Their extensive root
systems soak up the water in large quantity. Thereby it reduces the risk of
flood. As significant flood is required for the maintaining of flood plains, refrain
buffers help to keep the flood at moderate level.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Trap sediments</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Runoff from the poorly managed
agricultural land brings lot of excess sediments. These sediments tend to
deposit at the bottom of aquatic bodies. Thereby continuous addition of sediments
decreases the available depth for aquatic life. These sediments deposits in the
gill of the fishes which kill them. Pesticides, nutrients and heavy metals also
bind and come with sediments so excess nutrients causes eutrophication in
aquatic ecosystems. Pesticides and heavy metals tend to go through food webs
and accumulate in plant and animal bodies which results in serve health
problems or detrimental effect on the animal in the top of the food webs.
Excess sediments are trapped by the extensive root systems of shrubs, grasses
and trees in the riparian buffers .but when sediments is serious problem,
larger portion of the total buffer system hat to be planted with grasses which
are more effective in slow down flow of incoming water and trap the sediments. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Control pollution</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Nitrogen and phosphorus are the
primary nutrients for aquatic plants and algae. But excess nutrients cause the
sudden increase of the algal growth. It is referred to as eutrophication.
Eventually eutrophication is able to kill the all aquatic life and convert the
ecosystem into dead. So trees and shrubs in the riparian buffer are important
to eliminate the excess nutrient from the incoming water. The extensive root
systems of trees and shrubs absorb nutrient in large quantities for their
growth. Roots of some plants are able to sequester excess nutrient in their
roots. The anaerobic bacteria inhabits outside the rhizomes of roots are able
to denitrification of excess nitrogen. After conversion of excess nitrate into
nitrogen, it expels into the atmosphere. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Stream of river bank protection again
erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:  The extensive roots system of trees, grasses
create a mat to hold the soil in a place. Roots absorb the water in large
volumes from the bank so it is not allowed water content of the soil in the
bank to reach to saturated level. Thereby it minimizes the risk of bank
collapsing. Leaf litter from the buffer increases the roughness of the bank so
it reduces the river flow velocity. Thereby it minimizes the ability of river
flow to erode the bank.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Provide wildlife habitats</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Riparian buffers create the animal
and plant communities with high diverse and productivity. Some animals only
come to the riparian buffer for food, nesting and nursery while other inhabits
as their permanent habitat.  Animals use
trees and shrub as their nesting places. Wildflowers provide nectar for humming
birds. Evergreen shrubs and tress serve as a winter cover for wild life. Riparian
acts as the corridors for the wildlife. They support to link the habitats with
same type of some animals. Migrating birds find fruits and insects in the
riparian zones. The buffer zones offer nectar and host plants for certain
butterflies and moths species. Salamanders dig the soil and put their eggs
among the leaf litter in the floor of buffer zones. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enhance the quality of aquatic
habitats:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Riparian
buffers provide fundamental food sources of food webs of aquatic ecosystems.
Leaf litter falls into the water bodies are decomposed by microbes so that
organic matter and nutrients become available for other plants and animals such
as collectors and shredders. Macro invertebrates and small fishes also depend
on this leaf matter. These macro invertebrates and small fishes are eaten by large
fishes. In addition to food, riparian provides shelter for aquatic life.
Shelter and wind blowing from the buffer zone help to lower the temperature and
maintain within a stable range. Thereby it improves the oxygen solubility in
the water. Broken branches provide better hiding places for macro invertebrates
and small fishes to escape form their predators. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aesthetic and recreational value</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: In addition to ecological values,
riparian buffers attract the local and foreign tourists due to its fascinating
surrounding. People use the aquatic ecosystem associated with the buffer zone
for swimming, boat riding, walking, fishing and bird watching. The stream or
river and the riparian buffer improve the regional landscape. The tourisms
bring good income and development for the rural communities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Increase economic value</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Landholder can earn good income
when their riparian buffer zones are well managed and maintained. In addition
to protection of aquatic water bodies, the buffer zones provide firewood,
fruits, medicines, tanning and dyes and honey produced by bees. After trees get
mature, they can be cut for the woods, while replacing them by newly planted
trees. They provide winter protection for livestock. They trap water which is
even available under drought conditions for land. It reduces the spread of pest
and diseases attack. Well managed buffer zone can be used for eco-tourism which
gives high income.</span><o:p></o:p></div>

Riparian Buffer and its Environmental Benefits

Riparian buffer are the rows of grasses or trees planted along the bank of rivers and streams. It is one of the agroforestry systems. Riparian buffers act as the interface between adjacent terrestria…

19 Feb 2017

Weeds as Sustainable Resource

natural green

Link Author

Title: Weeds as Sustainable Resource
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Weeds are the plant that grows where it is unwanted or grow and spread fast and takes the place of native plants. Effects of weeds ...

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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Weeds are the plant that grows where
it is unwanted or grow and spread fast and takes the place of native plants. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Effects of weeds</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: They are able to grow fast and
spread in native areas. They compete successfully for light, space, water and
nutrients with native plant species. They are more vulnerable to pest and
diseases attack. Thereby they take place gradually of the native plants and reduce
biodiversity. Alternation of plant community directly affects their pollinators
and seed dispersal agents. Weeds cause the loss of the nesting places of native
birds. So animal diversity is also gradually become reduced as they moves into
new area or die. Weeds increase the cost of agriculture because once weeds have
established, it is very difficult to eliminate it.  Some weed may cause allopathic effect. They
produce toxic chemicals that interfere with metabolic pathways or suppress the
growth native plants seedling within their vicinity of roots. Ex: <b><i>Chromalaena
odorata.</i></b> Some are cause allergic reactions in humans. <b><i>Alternanthera
philoxeroides</i></b>(</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alligator
weed)is misused by people due to the same appearance with</span> <b><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Alternanthera sessils</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> but<b><i> </i></b>toxic to human.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although
the weeds are often disadvantageous, they are useful in many ways. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Erosion protection</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Weeds grow as a thick layer in the
agricultural lands so it prevents wind contact with top soil particles. Thereby
it reduces the erosion by wind. The weed have strong either fibrous or tap root
system that hold the soil particles together. The secrete glues that bond soil
particles together intro large aggregates. Thereby the weeds reduce the erosion
by rain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Add nutrients and organic matter</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Weed can be buried as a green
manure crop with main crop so that its decompositions of its plant materials
release nutrient and organic matter into the soil. <b><i>Chromalaena odorata</i></b> as a
green manure crop, it adds large amount of nitrogen as its leaves are rich in
nitrogen. If <b><i>Crotalaria retusa</i></b> is grown as a green manure crop, it adds
directly nitrogen to the soil because it belongs to legume. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Leafy vegetable</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: <b><i>Amaranthus spinosus</i></b><i> </i>is perennial weed. It is often found in
agricultural lands. It contains protein, minerals, and vitamins in large
quantity so it is able to heal some health problems. Its higher fiber content
is good for the health of digestive tract. It is rich in potassium which helps
to lower the blood pressure. High concentration of vitamin A lower or stop the
cataracts in eyes and keep the vision healthy. It contains amino acids which
are not produced by human body and they increases calcium uptake. Thereby they
bind tightly hair to the head so prevent the hair losses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Feedstock for livestock</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: <b><i>Panicum maximum</i></b><i> </i>is a perennial shrub. It possesses a
erect system<i>. </i>It is eaten by all
classes of grazing livestock. Its young leaves are more palatable compare to
the mature ones. In Vietnam, its leaves are used for fish feeding.<i> <b>Commelina
diffusa</b> </i>is another weed which grows in wet areas. It is comprised with
creeping stem. It grows as annual in temperate countries while it grows as
perennial in tropical countries. In addition to feed, it gives water in large
quantities. Thereby it reduces the water requirement for livestock.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Medicinal value: <i>Cyperus rotundus</i></span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> is also known as nut grass. It grows as perennial. It has an
underground stem.  It is used as an
ingredient in traditional ayurvedic medicine.it helps to treat digestive
problems, menstrual disorders and nausea. <b><i>Scoparia dulcis</i></b> is another medicinal
herb in</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">traditional
ayurvedic medicine. It grows as perennial. Its whole plant is boiled and drink
for diabetes. In addition diabetes, it is used for treat eye disorders, ear
disorders, menstrual irregularities and parasitic infections. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Economic important</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: weed has potential for been using
as a feedstock for biofuel production. Growing energy crops increases the
demand for land and nutrient available for world food production. It has to be
pump money on growing them. But use of weed as a feedstock, it does not affect
the agriculture. Cost of the biofuel production is lowered. Thereby customers
can apply biofuel for their vehicles at reasonable price. It gives additional
income for farmer.  It is one of best
solutions for weed management other than environmental degrading methods. <b><i>Panicum
maximum</i></b> is grown in Central America for bio alcohol production. Whole
plant body of weed can be used as feedstock in anaerobic digester for methane
production. Leaves of <b><i>Panicum maximum</i></b> is used for
thatching. Its culms are used for basket manufacturing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ornamental and hedge plant</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: <b><i>Lantana camera</i></b> is
perennial flowering plant.it is native to the tropical areas of America and
Africa. But it now has included in 100 of world worst invasive plants. It
possesses erect or subscandent stem. It grows individually in clumps or as
dense thicket. It attracts and provides nectar for many species of butterflies
and moths. But its spread into land which are used as pasture for livestock
because it produces toxic substances that are able to kill livestock which is
result in economic loss.  <b><i>Lantana
camera</i></b> as a hedge plant, it helps to keep away livestock from gardens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Raw material</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Exactions from young twigs of <b><i>Eclipta
prostrata</i></b> are used as a raw material for hair oil productions.it has
ability promote the hair growth. <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Weeds as Sustainable Resource

Weeds are the plant that grows where it is unwanted or grow and spread fast and takes the place of native plants. Effects of weeds: They are able to grow fast and spread in native areas. They compet…

17 Feb 2017

Algal Biofuels

natural green

Link Author

Title: Algal Biofuels
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

The world has paid attention towards renewable energy sources to overcome environmental issues and limited availability of fossil issue...

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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpphTgMONiO5RTxSNQFXisVtxrq6hyphenhyphenI7Pm7Xfz0eozDp8MjOTYOh4MNzCbSpFx-DmcFdIcl919EH4yh5HekrhyQpNsdQU943hwh7BK0_I45E2ayhjg_Iy8eYqC4cqHmDsy8xjGAvYADgoT/s1600/img1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="404" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpphTgMONiO5RTxSNQFXisVtxrq6hyphenhyphenI7Pm7Xfz0eozDp8MjOTYOh4MNzCbSpFx-DmcFdIcl919EH4yh5HekrhyQpNsdQU943hwh7BK0_I45E2ayhjg_Iy8eYqC4cqHmDsy8xjGAvYADgoT/s640/img1.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The world
has paid attention towards renewable energy sources to overcome environmental
issues and limited availability of fossil issues. Therefore use of algal
biomass is recognized a one of best solution. The production of biofuel algae
as the raw material is considered referred as the third generation fuel
production. It is able to minimize or eliminate the negative impacts due to the
first and second generation fuel production. Algal biomass production does not
compete with food production in the world like first generation fuel and it
does not threat to the food security.</span><u><span style="font-size: 48.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Algae biomass
production does not involve with agricultural lands. It harvests high yield per
unit area of land. Freshwater is not essential for algae production. Sea water
and wastewater also can be used.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Both microalgae and
microalgae are used for the algal fuel production. Microalgae are single celled
algae that live as individual or colony. Oil extracted from microalgae is used
for biodiesel production. Macroalgae with high sugar content in cell wall is
used for bioethanol production via fermentation. Macroalgae are digested in an
anaerobic digester for methane production. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Algae culture</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is the growth of algal biomass.
Macroalgae are grown directly on the open sea. But most people tend to collect
macroalgae from the sea and estuary rather than cultivation. Thereby it threats
the ecosystem balance. Microalgae are grown in the specifically designed
systems available in the land. It has to be supplied externally nutrients,
light, carbon dioxide, water and stable temperature. Wastewater is provided in
the form of nutrients. Open ponds and photo bioreactor are currently used for
microalgae cultivation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Open ponds:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> It is constructed in the shape of
circular or rectangular (raceway). It may large shallow or deep pond according
the depth. The depths of open ponds varies from 1-100cm. water is mixing by
using paddles or other mechanical devices. The bottom of raceways ponds are
made of concrete or lined with plastic. Due to the low cost of plastic lined,
raceways ponds may expand from few feet to thousand meters in length.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Circular ponds are oldest method of
algal cultivation. A centrally located rotation arm is used to mix the water. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages of open
ponds</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Low per capital cost and operating
cost<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Low energy requirement<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages of open
ponds:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Open pond system is less successful
in the temperate countries which experience seasonal changes than tropical
countries which do not experience seasonal changes. Because algae cannot grow
during winter season so algae cultivation is restricted summer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sunlight causes the loss of significant
amount of water due to the evaporation. Large surface area of pond expose to
the sunlight. Therefore large amount of water is needed to operate the open
pond system. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Open pond system produce low algal
density per unit compare to the photo bioreactor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">They are highly vulnerable to
contamination by native species. Algae may subject to predatory attacks in the
open pond system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Light is not equally distributed
throughout the open ponds because algae growth in the top layer of the water
column restricts the light penetration to the bottom.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Loss of Carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere from the ponds cannot be controlled. Carbon dioxide tends to expel
into atmosphere through diffusion. As the temperature rises, it decreases the
solubility of gas in the water. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Photo bioreactor</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: they are the closed system of algal
cultivation. Algae are grown in the closed</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">vertical vessels which are made of transparent material such
as stainless stain, glass or polyethylene. It helps light to penetrate through
it. But use of polythene is less durable and sensitive to environmental
changes. Conditions within the reactors can be controlled. It leads to harvest
maximum yield per unit of land area.  The
photo bioreactor can be either operated as batch or continuous mode. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Photo bioreactor produce maximum
yield per unit area because it offer larger area to volume ratio for the algal
growth compare to the open ponds.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As algae are grown in closer system,
it restricts the evaporation of water. 
Water requirement for the closer system is reduced. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It save the space as it use vessel in
the vertical position to grow so minimum land area can be used. Even it can be
established in indoors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantage:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Its capital cost and operative cost
is high. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As it is operated under controlled
conditions, it requires good care and maintenance. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Technicians should have proper
knowledge on the system. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Algae harvesting</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: After cultivation, increasing of
concentration of algal biomass refer to as the algae harvesting. Nearly 20-30%
of production cost has to be spending on the harvesting process. <b>Centrifugation, gravity filed, flotation
and filtration</b> are the available techniques for algae harvesting.  Although centrifugation gives high algae cell
density, it is energy intensive. Therefore approach like gravity settling is
the best solution for the algal biofuel production. Algae biomass is deposited
at the bottom of the settling tank under the process of flocculation. It can be
used with or without chemical flocculants. But use of chemical flocculants is
more efficient in biomass settling. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Algae processing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is the process of the oil
extraction from the algal biomass. Here two methods can be used. Algae biomass
can be used directly for biofuel production or oil that is extracted from the
alga biomass can be used for biofuel production. There are two methods
available for extraction of oil form the algae biomass including solvent
extraction and cell disruption to release the oil substances.  Algal biomass is dried first. Then later
solvent extraction is used to separate the oil content form the algae. This oil
can be used for biodiesel or green diesel production. Algal biomass can be
disgusted in an aerobic digester to produce methane. It can be fermented into
bioethanol by using microorganisms such as Yeast and enzymes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biodiesel derived from algae</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Oil content varies according to the
type of algae. Therefore algae with the high oil content are selected to grow.
Biodiesel is produced from algal oil and methanol by esterification. Biodiesel
is similar in composition to fossil diesel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Green diesel derived from algae:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> it is produced by using a refinery
method. The large oil molecules found in the algae are breakdown into small
hydrocarbon chain that can be used directly in the diesel engine at elevated
temperature and elevated pressure in the presence of catalyst. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bioethanol derived from algae</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Here alga with high sugar content
is used. Pretreatment is done to release the cellulose from the cell wall and
breakdown them into fermentable sugar. It can be done using physical, chemical
and biological methods. Use of biological method is relatively more beneficial.
It does not need energy and chemical. But microorganisms that involve in
breakdown of cellulose may not specific to cellulose they may degrade the
glucose and fructose. Yeast is added externally and it produce methanol through
fermentation. Then sucrose is breakdown into glucose and fructose by invertase.
These glucose and fructose is converted into ethanol by zymase. Then ethanol is
subjected to distillation. Because bioethanol still contains a large amount of
water. So the mixture of water and ethanol is heated. The boiling point of
ethanol is lower than that of the water. So ethanol is converted into vapor
phase before water. It is condensed to spate from the water. It helps to
increase the concentration of ethanol and clean it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Benefits of algal fuel:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It does not threat to the food
production in the world. It need minimum land requirement compared to the
biofuel production from food crops. It does not compete with nutrients
available for agriculture because wastewater can be used to provide nutrients. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It absorbs considerable amount of
carbon dioxide for biomass production. So it helps to carbon sequestration.
Thereby it reduces the greenhouse gas effect and global warming.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use algae as a raw material for
biofuel production can be used to produce a verity of fuels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Algae secretes oil compound that can
be used directly as ingredient in bio fuel production so there is no technical
challenges to pretreatment of lignocellulose biomass.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Algal Biofuels

The world has paid attention towards renewable energy sources to overcome environmental issues and limited availability of fossil issues. Therefore use of algal biomass is recognized a one of best so…

16 Feb 2017

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