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Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

natural green

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Title: Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Soil erosion refers to as the movement of soil particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process . It occurs at relativ...

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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil erosion
refers to as <b>the movement of soil
particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process</b>. It
occurs at relatively slow rate and its magnitude is unnoticed. Wind and water
are the major two agents of natural soil erosion. Due to the anthropogenic
activities, quality of the soil is degraded. Thereby soil makes more vulnerable
to soil erosion. Continuous removal of topsoil from agricultural lands affects
the crop yield and environment quality.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Driven factors of soil erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Deforestation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Cut down and remove of vegetation from land left bare soil.  It makes the soil more vulnerable to both wind
and water erosion. Removal of vegetation directly affects the organic matter
content in the soil. Due to the low organic matter availability, soil particles
are not aggregated together. Fine soil particles of topsoil are more easily
wash away or blown from the surface. Due to the absence of vegetation wind has the opportunity to directly contact the soil surface.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Overgrazing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Unregulated grazing of livestock reduces the thickness of the grass layer of
pasture lands so it makes more vulnerable to erosion. Livestock press topsoil
into the subsoil. It reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil. So it increases the
runoff. Thereby it increases the amount of soil to move through the water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Tillage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
Although tillage brings lots of advantages for agriculture, improper tillage
practices cause negative consequences. Tillage buries topsoil and brings
subsoil into the upper surface. It increases the surface area of soil exposed to
wind and rain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Construction of roads and other
infrastructure: Soils has to be removed in large scale in road and railways
constructions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mining</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: gem mining
and coal mining processes dig and remove a large portion of topsoil and subsoil
from the land. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Water erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: runoff is able to dislodge the fine
soil particles from the soil surface. It causes onsite effects and offsite
effects. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Gully erosion: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">As
a result of the high flow of velocity, the deep channel is formed by the removal of soil
and soft rocks. Riverbank is subjected to gully erosion due to the high
velocity of river flow. After heavy rain, gully erosion also can be observed at the bottom of the sloppy area.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sheet erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
It is the removal of the soil particles from the surface by a thin layer of
water. It removes soil more uniformly over the surface. As it happens at a slow
rate, it cannot be easily observed until a significant amount of topsoil is lost.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Rill erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
It forms well defined small channels over the surface as a result of strong
surface runoff. It can be observed in steep land and lands with gradual
sloping. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Wind erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
It is abraded, transports, and deposes of soil by the action of wind. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Onsite effects of
erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce crop yields</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: topsoil is the most fertile layer of soil that directly affects plant growth. It contains organic matter, nutrients, and microorganisms in large
quantities. It is continuously replenished by litterfall, organic matter decomposition,
nutrients cycling, and mineral weathering. After the loss of topsoil, subsoil falls
to fulfill all nutrient requirements of the plant which results in a reduction of crop
yelled. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce land stability</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Continuous removal of soil makes the land prepare for the
landslides.it causes loss of people, ecosystem and properties. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Offsite effects: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Siltation of aquatic bodies</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Soils particles that are washed away from the land tend to
deposit at the bottom of the lakes or streams. It reduces the water holding capacity
of the aquatic body which increases the flood risk of the area. Soils deposit in the
bottom vegetation. So it interferes with the breeding places and habitats.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Eutrophication:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">
Excess nutrients including phosphates and nitrates bound soil particles to accelerate
the growth of algae in the aquatic ecosystem. The sudden increase of algal
growth refers to as the algal bloom. Some algal species produce toxic
substances that are toxic to animal and plant life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Aquatic pollution:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> The soil acts as itself pollution. Dissolved soil increases the
turbidity which results in a reduction of light penetration through the aquatic
bodies. Thereby the productivity of deep layers of aquatic bodies is reduced. In
addition to nutrients, pesticides also attach to soil particles toxic to
aquatic animals. They tend to accumulate through the food web and cause detrimental
effects on the animals at the top levels. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Following
actions are suggested to minimize the erosion by wind or water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mulching</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:
organic mulches including fiber woods and straw, plastic and rubber mulching
and geotextile material is used for agriculture to minimize soil erosion.
It prevents the direct exposure of soils to winds. In addition to erosion
protection, organic mulch protects the moisture content in the soil and
improves the soil structure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Avoid overgrazing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: it is allowed livestock to feed on pasture land till a certain limit to
recover the vegetation again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Add organic matter</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Organic matter is able to glue small soil particles together to form
large aggregates. So soils cannot be detached from the land. Compost can be
added as the organic matter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Maintain vegetation cover</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: The root systems of the plant helps to hold the soil particles in
the places. They secrete glues which are helped to bind fine soil particles into
large aggregates. Thereby they protect soils against water erosion. Thick
vegetation cover prevents reduces wind velocity and does not allow it to contact the soil. Thereby it protects the soil against wind erosion.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">No-tillage or conservation tillage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">: Conservation tillage means to increase crop yield while taking
actions to protect the soil against wind erosion and water erosion. Here
tillage is not used from sawing to harvest or use minimum tillage.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

Soil erosion refers to as the movement of soil particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process . It occurs at relativ...

(7) Soil texture

natural green

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Title: (7) Soil texture
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

7.1 What is the soil texture? 45% of the soil is co...

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<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">7.1 <u>What is the soil texture?<o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                     45% of the soil is composed
of minerals components. Soil texture is based on a weight ratio of the three
soil separates (sand, silt, and clay).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                          Therefore we can define
as; Soil texture is relative proprtions of
sand,silt and clay in a mass of soil.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              </span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.2 <u>How
the soil texture is formed?<o:p></o:p></u></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                       Texture
is the result of weathering parent material. Weathering can be occurred in two
types these are physical withering and chemical weathering. In physical
weathering, rocks are brake down into small pieces. In chemical weathering,
chemical composition of minerals is converted to other forms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                       Weathering
rate is depended on chemical composition and structure of parent material. It
causes to from different textures soils. When parent material is shale and
easily weather, it formed clay-rich soils. When parent material is graphite and
relatively slow weathered, it forms sandy, coarse soils<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                       7.3 <u>Classification of soil grains </u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                                    </span></span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil particles</span><br />
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Coarse fraction                                                Find fraction</div>
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(<2 mm)                                                           (2 mm>)</div>
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Gravel                                                             <span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Sand
(5 mm- 0.5)mm                                         </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Coarse                                                             </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Silt (0.5 mm-0.002 mm)</span></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">    7.4 <u>Coarse
grained soils<o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Coarse soils are considered as single-grained
soils. They are visible to naked eye (Without using microscopes). The diameter
of coarse soil is more than 2 mm.</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Gravels, cobbles and boulders are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">belong</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> to coarse
grained soils. Coarse soils are not considered as fine fraction.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEGls3jodAWVOM2OwOvZ_rE_JQcX6CIdCb0aHP8rQJGRipwmYKPQ7_GkkGnP9ORY_8z7UvM5gHN1lRiJHC89Vq3DRhKB0RBcPh6hJM8JtBYfqKNLxi4PNGD9Dt-ZjcSqYkeqee876o-p2U/s1600/grained_soil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEGls3jodAWVOM2OwOvZ_rE_JQcX6CIdCb0aHP8rQJGRipwmYKPQ7_GkkGnP9ORY_8z7UvM5gHN1lRiJHC89Vq3DRhKB0RBcPh6hJM8JtBYfqKNLxi4PNGD9Dt-ZjcSqYkeqee876o-p2U/s320/grained_soil.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">     7.5 <u>Fine grained soil</u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
 <tbody>
<tr style="height: 40.9pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
  <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Sand<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Silt<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Clay<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Diameter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">2 mm-0.05 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">0.05 mm-0.002mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">0.002 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Feeling<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Gritty<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Smooth<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Sticky<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Surface area<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Low<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Large<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Nutrients for plants<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Less<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">More<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Most<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Permeability of water<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Rapid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Moderate<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Slow<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Shape<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Rounded/angular<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Visibility<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Era visible<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non-visible without microscope<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non-visible without microscope<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Wet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">No stickiness<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">No stickiness<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Stickiness<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
  <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Plastic<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
  <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Very<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
 </tr>
<tr>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">7.6 <u>Properties related to texture<o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Porosity</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Although
sand particles have relatively larger pores, it doesn’t consist of more pores
than other because sandy soils are not well aggregated therefore amount of
pores in unit volume is relatively lower. Clay soils are well aggregated
therefore it has amount of pore in unit volume is relatively higher. Clay soil
has usually small size pores. Therefore clay soils have relatively larger
porosity than sandy soil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">     1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Infiltration <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Water porn through the soil vertically. Sandy
soils has relatively larger infiltration capacity than silt and clay soils
because sandy soils are composed of large pores that are connected to together
very well therefore water can move relatively 
more rapidly.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         3) Erodibility <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Erodibity is
ability to erode of soil particles. Soils have high   percentages of silt and clay, these soils are
more tended to erode under some unbeneficial conditions than sandy soils.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     4) Water holding capacity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Clay soils have relatively more water
holding capacity than silts and sands because clay soils has macro pores
between aggregates and micro pores within the aggregates and these pores are
not connected together very well so water doesn’t drained downward in soil
therefore clay soils can store relatively more water. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">7.7 <u>Importance of soils<o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    1) Water flow potential<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    2) Water holding capacity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    3) Fertility
potential<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    4) Suitability for many urban uses like
bearing capacity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    5) Aeration <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    6) CEC (Cation exchange capacity)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 97.5pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt 3.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>

(7) Soil texture

7.1 What is the soil texture? 45% of the soil is co...

(6) Permeability

natural green

Link Author

Title: (6) Permeability
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Soil permeability is the ease with which air, water, or plant roots penetrate or pass through the soil. The size of p...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     Soil permeability is the
ease with which air, water, or plant roots penetrate or pass through the soil.</span>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The size of pore space and
interconnectivity of the<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">spaces help
determine permeability, so the shape and arrangement of grains play a role.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                <u>Permeability for soils<o:p></o:p></u></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Type of grain                                          </span></span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Permeability(cm/s)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Well sorted gravel                                 </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">102 to 1</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">silt sands, fine
sands                             </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">10-5 to 10-3</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">silt, sandy silts,
clayey sands, till         </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">10-6 to 10-4</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Clay                                                          </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">10-9 to 10-6</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqxEuWUNwgQS0aEVN76-tpVolwpotmFTOmHTYLiTR98oCi5etn5Qe_7u_D9n7TIrWDa3nheGlliWhJa9inLgNWcesQ5GONI8hYy44o8jVD-zJUUO2RZZqP7KKdGShvOubeqnytOv2F5ebj/s1600/porous.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="187" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqxEuWUNwgQS0aEVN76-tpVolwpotmFTOmHTYLiTR98oCi5etn5Qe_7u_D9n7TIrWDa3nheGlliWhJa9inLgNWcesQ5GONI8hYy44o8jVD-zJUUO2RZZqP7KKdGShvOubeqnytOv2F5ebj/s320/porous.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although sandy soils
have lower porosity than clay soils, sandy soils have relatively larger
permeability than clay because pores in clay are not connected together very
well.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The most rapid water
and air movement is in sands because sand soils have relatively larger pores
and loose aggregated structure.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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(6) Permeability

Soil permeability is the ease with which air, water, or plant roots penetrate or pass through the soil. The size of p...

Soil strength

natural green

Link Author

Title: Soil strength
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Soil strength is defined as the amount of force required to move or rearrange soil particles. 7.1 Factors affecting soil strength ...

<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil strength is
defined as the amount of force required to move or rearrange soil particles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<h3>
<u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.1</span></u><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></u><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Factors
affecting soil strength<o:p></o:p></span></u></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">(1) </span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Moisture conten</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">t</span></span></h4>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   When soils are saturated or waterlogged,
soils are relatively weaker, therefore, soils can be easily broken down.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Soils
cannot be easily broken down because of dry conditions. Therefore these soils
are more strength.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;">
<h4>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) Bulk density</span></h4>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   When
soils have low bulk density, these soils can be easily broken down because
these soils consist of relatively more pores so mass per unit volume is
relatively low. Therefore soil can be easily broken down.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Soils
cannot be easily broken down because when the soil has a high bulk density that’s
mean, the soil has relatively lower pores so mass per unit volume is relatively
high.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h4>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) Structure</span></h4>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                When
soils are well aggregated like clay soils, the soils have relatively larger
strength. Sands, sandy loams and loamy sands have relatively smaller strength
because these soils aren’t well aggregated. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                 </span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.2 <u>Importance of soil
strength <o:p></o:p></u></span></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                               1)
Germination of seeds<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                               2)
Plant growth<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Good aeration and well-drained of
soils are essential for the germination of seeds and the growth of plants.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: 20pt;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">        </span><span style="font-size: 20pt;">7.3 </span><u style="font-size: 20pt;">Human
effects on soil strength</u></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;">
<u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Soil management practices for
agriculture are affected by soil strength badly. Compacted soil horizons called
Ap or E are formed due to the using of heavy machines for tillage practices.
Compacted soils have usually higher strength, therefore, the growth of plants and The germination of seeds is restricted.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 18.6667px; text-indent: 0.5in;">          </span><span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">7.4 </span><u style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Measuring
of soil strength penetrometers</u></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                Penetrometers are used to
measure soil strength. A rod is entered into the soil by inserting force
that the required force is used to measure the soil strength.  Therefore we can recognize the affection of
compaction soils to the growth of plant and germination of seeds by resistance to the exert of a rod into the soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>

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Soil strength

Soil strength is defined as the amount of force required to move or rearrange soil particles. 7.1 Factors affecting soil strength ...

Physical properties

natural green

Link Author

Title: Physical properties
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

First Part. (1) Soil water Hygroscopic water - Reaming water strongly adher...

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<b>First Part.</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">      (1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil
water<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hygroscopic
water</span></u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- Reaming water
strongly adheres to soil particles. Roots of plants can’t absorb this water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Capillary
water</span></u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- Water retains
between pore spaces in soil. Pore spaces of soil aren’t still saturated
totally. This water is available for roots.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gravitational
water</span></u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-Water drains
through the soil because pore spaces of soil are totally saturated by water.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amount of
water in soil vary as follow: Gravitational water> capillary
water> hygroscopic water<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Field capacity</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">–water held in the soil after
complete wetting followed by free drainage<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wilting point</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">–water
that is held too tightly for plants to absorb the </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">difference between field capacity and wilting
point 100% of field capacity –optimal </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">75% of field capacity –enough for irrigation
50% or less of field capacity - </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Doesn’t</span><span style="font-family: "simsun"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">enough for irrigation.
Soil water content can be measured by using two methods.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        
</span></span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil
water content (by weight)</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵm = Mw /<u> </u>Ms<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵm- soil water content<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mw- a mass of water evaporated (≥24hours
@105</span><span style="color: #0c0c0c; font-family: "angsana new" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">º</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">C)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Ms-mass of dry soil</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Soil
water content (By volumetric)</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵv = Vw / Vs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵv-
volumetric water content<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vw-volume
of water<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Vs-volume of soil sample<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>

Physical properties

First Part. (1) Soil water Hygroscopic water - Reaming water strongly adher...

Introduction of soil

natural green

Link Author

Title: Introduction of soil
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

1.0 What’s soil? Soil is a life-supporting upper layer surface of the earth which is the basis of all agriculture . It cont...

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<span style="color: #10253f; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1.0 </span><span style="color: #00b050; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What’s
soil?</span></div>
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<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil is a life-supporting upper layer surface of the earth which is
the basis of all </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">agriculture</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">. It contains minerals and gavel from the chemical and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">physical</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> weathering of</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> rocks, decaying organic matter </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(humus), microorganism, insects, nutrients, water, and air.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soils differ according to the area and are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">constantly</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> being
formed and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">removed</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> by natural, animal and human activity.</span></span></div>
<span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.0</span><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Major components of soils</span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp-rjg0FIs5NfQRBNvc4o34HpmjXRpHX5rYN3OFe1vNNLtosMEPRsK5tA20AsC4jhQ5m0aCNbCJGws6LvNJG-R-VdxYqLkd3INLk2pbxSpX1nu6pcWct-9T79ZAatM4zSddBdsKIA6pbBP/s1600/major.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="173" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp-rjg0FIs5NfQRBNvc4o34HpmjXRpHX5rYN3OFe1vNNLtosMEPRsK5tA20AsC4jhQ5m0aCNbCJGws6LvNJG-R-VdxYqLkd3INLk2pbxSpX1nu6pcWct-9T79ZAatM4zSddBdsKIA6pbBP/s320/major.gif" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil consist of four major components.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 28pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(1) </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">inorganic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(minerals)-45%</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) organic-5%</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) air-25%</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   (4) water-25%</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">  </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Organic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> matter in the soil is added by decomposition</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> of dead bodies of </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">organisms</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">, urine, and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">faces</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Inorganic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> matter such as clay, sand and silt result</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> from rock weathering.</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">  Air and water
are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Storage</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> between pore spaces in soil. </span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Therefore topology, climate
and bedrock can be influenced by soil’s components</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.0 </span><span style="color: #002060; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil </span></span><span style="color: #002060; font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;">structure</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Soil</span><span style="color: #7030a0; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">particles </span><span style="color: #7030a0; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">have the arrangement. The soil particles
are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">bounded</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> together into aggregates by binding </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">agents</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> such as </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">organic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> matter, clay, CaCO3 and ion oxide and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">biological</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> agents such as a fungal </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">hyphen</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">. While </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">aggregate</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> is from </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">naturally</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> called “peds” and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">artificially</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> “Clods”.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4.0 </span><span style="color: #ce02b1; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil </span><span style="color: #ce02b1; font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;">profile</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   Soil a profile is vertical cross-section from the surface down to bedrock(parent </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">martial</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">). The soil profile is </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">usually</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">divided</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> into few </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">layers</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> called “horizons”.
The master soil horizons and layers are represented by capital letters such as 0, A, E, B, C
and R. Some of the above layers may be absent in some soil profiles.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">O horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The top layer of soil, it </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">consists</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> of decomposed organic matter such as humus
and litter of leaves. Therefore the layer has usually black in </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">color</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">A horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The horizon has more organic </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">content</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> than
other </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">lower</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> horizons so it can be identified darker than </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">lower</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> horizons.The
horizon can be considered as the most active </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">biological</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> layer because soil
horizons fungi,earth warms and microorganisms such as bacteria</span></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">live there.  Germination of seeds has occurred</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> in this
layer. Roots of </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">plants</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> well developed in this layer.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">E horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;">The la</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">yer has a wight </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">color</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">. It can be found
between the A and B </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">horizons</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">. During this leaching, </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">clay's</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">, oxides and carbonate minerals that have been washed from the upper part of the profile accumulate in
the below layer known as the B horizon.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">B horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The layer is defined as subsoil. The layer
is </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">cindered</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> as most active weathering because It has a large accumulation of
minerals, silt, and clay </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">which</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> are leached from upper layers such as 0, A and E.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">C horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The layer is unconsolidated but has
been relatively unaffected by soil-forming processes.</span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 242;">C horizon is called
the regolith.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">R horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The layer is considered as the deepest
layer of the soil profile. It hasn’t any rocks or boulders.  Continuous bedrock is only present in this
layer. The </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">color</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> of the layer is similar to bedrock in the layer.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #7030a0; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5.0 </span><span style="color: #943634;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;">Roles</span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"> of soil<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Medium
for plant growth<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Regular
of water supplies<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Regular
of raw materials<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modifier
of the atmosphere<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Habitat
for organisms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Act as
an engineering medium<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Introduction of soil

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Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

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Introduction of soil

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