Archive for 2016

Weed control and management

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Title: Weed control and management
Author: Natural green
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Weed control and management Weed is defined as a plant that is undesirable, unattractive or troublesome especially one t...

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<b><u><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Weed control and management<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               Weed is defined as a plant that
is undesirable, unattractive or troublesome especially one that grows where it
is not wanted and often grows or spreads fast or take the place of desired
plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  The
classification of weeds is important for applying weed management for a
particular group of weed instead of individual weed species. Weeds are
classified according to their life cycle, morphology, structure and form.
According to the life cycle, weeds are classified into three groups. <b>Annua</b>l weed take one year or one season
to complete their life cycle. <b>Biennial</b>
weed take two years or season to complete their life cycle. <b>Perennial</b> weed take more than two years
or several years to complete their life cycle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  According
to the habitat weeds are classified into two groups such as terrestrial and
aquatic. According to the morphology, weeds are classified into two groups such
as narrow leaved weeds and broad leaved weeds. Grasses (family Poaceae) and sedge
(family cyperaceae) are the examples for narrow leaved weeds. Grasses have
hollow stem and lignite alternative or opposite leaves with leaf sheath. Sedges
are angular and have solid stem. Broad leaved weeds are dicot plants. The
difference between broad leaved weeds and narrow leaved weed helps to use of
selective control methods without injuring broad lead weeds. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Correct
identification, impacts and life cycle of weed are useful to idenify proper
weed management. Several methods are available to control weeds. Preventive
methods are used to stop the spread of weeds. Preventing the introduction of
weeds and spreading is usually easier than controlling them after
establishment. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">              Cultural
weed control methods make the crop to be the best completer with the weeds.
Planting the best crop varieties and dense crop populations and applying lime
and fertilizers help to achieve the aim of the cultural weed control. It is
more practicable and efficient method for controlling weeds where other methods
are impossible such as within rows of rice fields. But it is difficult to
distinguish weed seedlings and rice seedlings at early stages so uprooting of
rice seedlings cannot be avoided. It is not practical to apply for large scale
rice fields. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Biological
control involves the use of natural enemies to reduce the reproductive
potential of weeds.  They can be weed
feeders like insect feeders or disease cause organisms like fungi, bacteria and
viruses to kill the invasive plants. It is environmentally friendly methods. It
has ability to self-propagative so there is no need of again and again
introducing them for field. Weeds are unable to develop resistance against
biological methods. The damage to the untargeted pant species is minimized due
to its selectivity.  As biological
control agents are also dependent on the environmental conditions, it causes
fluctuations on the weed populations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Chemical
control involves the use of herbicides to kill a particular group of weed. It
is an efficient method for both small scale and large scale. It supports to
kill the deep rooted, vegetative propagative plants. After application, it is
not allowed weed to regenerate for a considerable time period. Unlike other
methods, herbicides are able to reach all places and kill the weeds.  But excess use of herbicides makes the weed to
develop resistance against them. The people who apply the herbicide must have
proper technical knowledge in order to apply the appropriate dose with correct dilution.
 In addition to suppression of growth
weed, it treats to the growth of crop plants as well as animal species. Excess use
of herbicide pollutes the soil, water and the atmosphere.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Mechanical
or physical methods destroy or make the environment less favorable for seed germination
and survival.  Mechanical methods are tillage,
uprooting, slashing, moving, ring banking and dark stripping. It requires less
time than the manual control. It is only suitable for small scale weed management.
It cannot be used to control weeds growing much closer to the crop plants.  Improper tillage can damage the crop plants
too. It cannot be used for soil with too dry or too wet conditions. It causes
serve disturbance to the soil which leads to soil erosion. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               Integrated
weed management (IWM) involves employment of different methods of weed
prevention and control. IWM is a combination of physical control, chemical control,
biological control and cultural control method. It reduces the chance to the plants
to adapt to the control techniques. It reduces the weed stock and extent in the
soil. It is the most sustainable method of weed control and management.  But it takes relatively more tim</span><span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">e </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">for the longer process. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Risk
of plant to be invasive is assessed by using a protocol including 32
questions.  At least 28 answers for flora
are essential to evaluate the potential of risk. Each question must be marked
with either yes or no. Using final percentages value for answers with yes, the plant
is placed in one of following categories. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        >80%-
very high risk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        60-80%-high
risk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        40-60%-
moderate risk<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        <40%-
low risk<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Weed control and management

Weed control and management Weed is defined as a plant that is undesirable, unattractive or troublesome especially one t...

Seedless non vascular plants (Phylum Pterophyta)

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Title: Seedless non vascular plants (Phylum Pterophyta)
Author: Natural green
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Seedless non vascular plants (Phylum Pterophyta) According to the recent researches, vascular plants a...

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<b><u><span style="font-size: 26.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Seedless non vascular
plants<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 26.0pt; line-height: 115%;">            </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 22.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(Phylum Pterophyta)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               According to the recent
researches, vascular plants are evolved from mosses like plants.  They were the first group of plant those had
chance to grown in larger size in the land due to the presence of vascular
system. The vascular system arise from the root system further extends into the
stem and leaves. It facilitates the efficient way of water and nutrients
transport.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             The division
Pterophyta can be distinguished from other plant by a vascular system, a
dominant sporophyte and dispersal through spores.  Ferns are also restricted to shady moist
environments. Most are terrestrial. Some float on the aquatic bodies. Some grow
as epiphytes on the tree trunks and rocks in order to get maximum solar energy
for maximum photosynthesis. Most of the ferns are found as herbs and shrubs.
Tree plants are rarely found such <i>Angiospetris</i>.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             The
gametophyte is the short lived one of their life cycles. Their sporophytes and
gametophytes are <b>heteromorphic </b>which
means both of them are differ in morphology. 
Both sporophyte and gametophyte are photosynthetic and can live
independently. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             The fern’s
sporophyte is much more complex than that of the mosses. The fern sporophyte
has vascular tissues. It is well differentiated into the stem, roots and
leaves.  The gametophyte is lack of
vascular tissues. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             Fern
sporophyte has a horizontal underground stem called rhizome with roots emerging
from their sides. Some have aerial stem. 
The large compound leaves are referred to as fronds. They usually rise
from the tip of the rhizome.  Young
leaves are called as fiddle heads which appear as rolled up coils. The fiddle
heads unroll and develop into the mature leaves.  Most of the ferns fronds are dissected and
feathery<i>. Marselia</i> has fronds which
is four clovers. But they also develop form the piddle heads. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Some
ferns possess respectively both of photosynthetic vegetative fronds and Non photosynthetic
reproductive fronds that appear in brownish color such as <i>Drymyoglossum</i>. Some have elevated fertile fronds and horizontal
vegetative fronds such as <i>Anemia</i>.
These elevated fronds bear the clusters of sporangia.  Some ferns possess only vegetative fronds but
underside of those vegetative fronds bear clusters of sporangia called as <b>sori</b>. It may or not protected by structure
called indusum. In <i>Marseilie</i>a, the
microsporangia and megasporangia are produced respectively. Those sporangia are
enclosed in special bean shaped structure called as <b>sporacarps</b>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Most
Pterophyte are <b>homosporous</b> which
produce spores of one size and they result in producing only one
gametophyte.  Those homosporous ferns
have <b>exosporic</b> <b>development</b> where the gametophyte develops from the outside of the
spore wall.  But a significant number of
ferns are <b>heterosporous</b> which
produce spores of two distinct sizes such tiny microspores and large
megaspores.  The microspores produce the
male gametophyte and megaspores produce female gametophyte.  Those heterosporous are <b>endosporic development</b> where the gametophyte develops inside the
spore wall. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      The
sporangia in the fertile fronds or sorri have thick walled cells on the one
side of the sporangium. It is hygroscopic. The diploid spores mother tissues
undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores. . Under dry conditions, those
hygroscopic cells contract and cause sporangium to release spores. When
favorable conditions receive, spores are germinated and result in producing
haploid gametophyte.  These gametophytes
are heart shaped and in one cell thickness. 
They have rhizoid to anchor themselves to the substrate. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      The
flask shaped archegonia and globular antheridia are produced on either side of
the same or different gametophyte.  The
sperm found in the antheridia have flagella.  When water is present, sperm swim towards the
archegonia through a chemical signal released by the archegonia. After
fertilization, the diploid zygote is produced. The zygote is developed into the
new haploid sporophyte and completes the life cycle. Although ferns also do not
produce seeds, they much advanced form the other seedless vascular plants.  Those vascular plants are considered as <b>polysporangiate</b> which means produce
sporangia more than one. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Seedless non vascular plants (Phylum Pterophyta)

Seedless non vascular plants (Phylum Pterophyta) According to the recent researches, vascular plants a...

Oxygen Relationship of Organisms

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Title: Oxygen Relationship of Organisms
Author: natural green
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Although oxygen is an essential compound in life, excess oxygen becomes toxic to the organisms. Oxygen is a one of strong oxidation age...

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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although oxygen is an essential compound in life, excess
oxygen becomes toxic to the organisms. Oxygen is a one of strong oxidation
agent in the word. Oxidation of oxygen is able to produce highly toxic forms of
oxygen like super oxide and hydroxyl. They kill the living cell oxidizing
chemicals in the cell.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       In
human excess oxygen is not a serious problem because oxygen is transported into
cells by the blood.  Pigments in the
human blood, hemoglobin is mainly responsible for oxygen transportation. It is
only have ability to transport 4 oxygen molecules once so cells do not
experience high concentrations of oxygen. But single celled tiny microorganisms
always exposure to the environment and oxygen go through their cell. Some
organisms have enzymes those are able to destroy the toxic forms of
oxygen.  The enzymes are <b>catalase, peroxidase and super oxide
dismutase</b>. So they can live under even high concentration of oxygen due to
the presence of those enzymes. They are unable to live under anaerobic
conditions.  So they refer to as <b>aerobic organisms</b>. They can only
perform aerobic respiration to produce ATP. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Some
of microorganisms are unable to live in aerobic environment due to the absence
of above enzymes. So they have to remain in anaerobic environment like deep mud
layer in sea and intestine of animals. Those organisms refer to as <b>anaerobic microorganisms</b>. They perform
both fermentation and aerobic respiration for their ATP production. They use
inorganic substances like ferrous, nitrate and sulfate as their terminal
electron acceptor in their electron transport chain instead of oxygen in
anaerobic respiration.  Some
microorganisms can perform both mechanisms to synthesis ATP while some only
perform fermentation due to the absence of electron transport chain. Those who
can perform both prefer anaerobic respiration than fermentation because
efficiency and number of ATP synthesis of anaerobic respiration is higher than
that of fermentation. When there is no terminal electron acceptor is available
they perform fermentation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Another
group of microorganisms are able to live under both aerobic and anaerobic
conditions. Because they have enzymes to destroy the toxic forms of oxygen so
they can live in aerobic environment. They can perform fermentation and/or
anaerobic respiration under anaerobic condition so they are able to live under
even anaerobic conditions.  Those
microorganisms refer to as facultative microorganisms. <i>Thiobacillus dentrificans</i> is a <b>facultative
microorganism</b>. It performs aerobic respiration to produce ATP under aerobic
conditions.  If the environment suddenly
becomes anaerobic, they shift into anaerobic respiration. They use nitrate ion
in the soil as their terminal electron acceptor.  So it convert nitrate into atmospheric
nitrogen. It cause releasing nitrogen from the soil and decrease the soil
fertility. If aeration is return, then again they start to perform aerobic
respiration because efficiency and number of ATP synthesis of aerobic
respiration is little bit higher than that of anaerobic respiration.  <i>Escherichia
coli</i> are another example for facultative microorganisms. It lives in the
human intestine where the conditions are anaerobic. So they perform anaerobic
respiration for their ATP production. Somehow they enter into free environment
through the human faces.  They can
survive 2-3 days in the free environment and produce ATP aid in aerobic
respirations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Some
microorganisms are able to live under little concentration of oxygen. They
refer to as <b>microaerophiles</b>. They
have little amount of enzymes those destroy the toxic forms of oxygen or not.
So if the environment suddenly becomes highly oxygenated, they form spores in
order to survive. Spores are a domal structure. Metabolic actives do not happen
within it. The tick wall of spores is not allowed oxygen to penetrate through
it.  If they suddenly fallen into
environment with anaerobic condition like deep wound in animals or oxygen
concentration become vanish, they become active again. Clostridum is an example
for microaerophiles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

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Oxygen Relationship of Organisms

Although oxygen is an essential compound in life, excess oxygen becomes toxic to the organisms. Oxygen is a one of strong oxidation age...

Winogradsky Column

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Title: Winogradsky Column
Author: natural green
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Freshwater sample extracted from a pond is taken into a glass cylinder. As it is made of glass, light is able to penetrate through it...

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Freshwater sample extracted from
a pond is taken into a glass cylinder. As it is made of glass, light is able to
penetrate through it. It is kept for few weeks further observations. After few
weeks, a mud layer deposit at the bottom of the cylinder. As a result of
microbial activities, separation of layers in the water column can be seen.<o:p></o:p></div>
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                                                              At
the beginning, aerobic respiratory organisms are taken place. They consume the
large amount of organic matter present in the bottom mud layer. As they use
oxygen as their terminal electron acceptor in their electro transport chains,
oxygen in the mud layer is depleted. Then fermentative microorganisms become
active. <i>Clostridium</i> is the one of
fermentative bacteria that is active in the mud under anaerobic conditions.
They use as cellulose as their substrate and produce alcohols, acids and
aldehydes as their byproducts. After that anaerobic microorganisms are active.
They use fermentative byproducts as their substrate in the anaerobic
respirations. They use sulfate as their terminal electron acceptor in their
electro transport chains. So they convert sulfate ions into hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen
sulfide reacts with iron (II) in the mud. As a result of this reaction ferrous
sulfide is produced. It gives a black to the mud. Since Hydrogen sulfide is
gas, it moves upward of the water column. <o:p></o:p></div>
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                                                              Green
sulfur bacteria live in the layer just above the mud. They are shown in green
color due to the color of photosynthetic pigments.  The method of ATP synthase of them is
photosynthesis. As the light penetrates through the water column, they are able
to do photosynthesis. They use hydrogen sulfide as their electro donor to
fulfill the electro deficiency in the chlorophyll. So oxidation of hydrogen
sulfide give an electron the chlorophyll and convert into sulfur.  Sulfur is deposited in their cells. Reaming hydrogen
sulfide moves further upward.<o:p></o:p></div>
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                                                              Purple
sulfur bacteria live in the layer just above the green sulfur bacteria. They
are unable to live in bottom area where the concentration of hydrogen sulfide
is high. because high concentration of hydrogen sulfide are toxic and able to
kill them. They are shown in purple color due the color of their photosynthetic
pigments. Their method of ATP synthase is photosynthesis and use hydrogen
sulfide as their electron donor in chlorophyll. Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide
fills the electron deficiency in chlorophyll and converts into sulfur. Sulfur
deposit in their cells.  Reaming hydrogen
sulfide reaches to the surface layer.<o:p></o:p></div>
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                                                     In
the surface layer of the water column, oxygen is highly available. Therefore
Aerobic respiratory microorganisms are abundant there. So sulfur oxidizing
bacteria like <i>Thiobacillus thioxidans</i>
live there. They are also called as Chemolithropic organism those who use
oxidation of inorganic substrate to synthesis ATP. They use hydrogen sulfide as
their substrate and produce ATP.  The
oxidation of hydrogen sulfide gives electrons to run an electron chain so hydrogen
sulfide is converted into sulfate ions.  Sulfate ions are highly soluble in the
water.  Dissolved sulfate ions come to
the bottom mud layer. Again   Sulfate is
used as terminal electron acceptor by anaerobic respiratory microorganisms and
release hydrogen sulfide.<o:p></o:p></div>
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                                                     Therefore
all the activities taken place in the water column are interrelated.  Product or byproducts of a reaction become
substrate of electron donor or terminal electron acceptor of other reactions. <o:p></o:p></div>

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Winogradsky Column

Freshwater sample extracted from a pond is taken into a glass cylinder. As it is made of glass, light is able to penetrate through it...

Transmission of Vector Borne Diseases

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Title: Transmission of Vector Borne Diseases
Author: natural green
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What is means to be vectorbrone diseases? The disease transmitted from one individual to another by a ve...

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<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is means to be vectorbrone
diseases?</span></u></b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             <b><span style="color: #111111;">The disease
transmitted from one individual to another by a vector</span></b><span style="color: #111111;">.</span> Vector may be vertebrate like dogs, birds or
invertebrate like mosquitoes, sand flies, flies and cockroaches. The major
requirements those should be fulfilled for transmission of vector borne disease
are presence of parasite, vector and host. But in some diseases reservoir host
is also involved. Ex: Pigs for Japanese Encephalitis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the factors
those accelerate the transmission of vector borne diseases? <o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             <b>Urbanization</b>: Unplanned and
uncontrolled urbanization in urbanize areas in developing countries, it causes
serve health problems. As a result of higher consumption, waste generation is
also increased.  Therefore it creates the
habitats for vectors. Derange which is blocked with waste are ideal place for <b><i>Culex</i></b>
mosquito breeding. Water accumulated containers like coconut cells, plastic
cans, tins, discard tires and flower vases are preferable breeding place for <b><i>Aedes</i></b>
mosquitoes.  Dirty and unclean condition
in house prepares the habitats for rats. As a result of high population density,
there is high probability to transmit disease from one individual to another rapidly.
Migration of people from emerge area to none emerge areas also transmits the
diseases because people in non emerge areas have no immunity for such diseases
come from outside. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             <b>Climate change</b>: As a result of global
warming, climate and whether patterns are changed. So the world experiences
long period of rainy seasons and long period of dry seasons. During dry season,
eggs of mosquitoes hatch rapidly and larva emerges into adults rapidly. Adults
are died within a short time period. Therefore life cycle of the mosquitoes is
shortened.  Biting frequencies of
mosquitoes also increase.  During wet
season, density of the vegetation is increased. So it offers more resting sites
for vectors. Continuous rain also supports to improve the both quality and
quantity of the breeding sites. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             <b>Agriculture</b>: forested areas are
converted into agricultural areas. People tend to spend their most of the time
in their agricultural lands. So they are exposure vectors easily. Rice fields
are ideal breeding sites for the <b><i>Culex </i></b>mosquitoes due to high organic
matte content. As a result of wells for agriculture and dam construction,
moving water is converted into non moving water stagnant water. It is ideal
place for <b><i>Anophline </i></b>mosquitoes breeding. 
Since most of farmers in developing countries have lower income and less
immunity for diseases, they are more prone to vector borne diseases. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                <b>Deforestation and forest related activities</b>-
The conversion of forested area into human settlement, agriculture lands, and
the vectors are persuaded to migrate into urbanize areas.  Deforested areas offer breeding places for
vector with low salinity and low acidity compare to those in forested areas.
People who worked with forest related activities like mining, collecting
medicine and extracting woods are exposure vectors easily. Ex: Vectors of
Yellow fever and Malaria. The first person who suffered from coetaneous
Leishmaniasis was reported in Sri Lanka worked in a forest logging. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                <b>Excess usage of insecticides</b>:  As a result of excess use of insecticides,
mosquitoes become resistant. So application of insecticides for controlling
vector borne diseases is less effective. As an example, emerge of malaria in
mid 1900 centaury in Sri Lank caused serve loss of population. So DDT was
applied to kill <b><i>Anophiline</i></b> mosquitoes. Then reported cases were dropped down to
near zero. But after few years, reemergence of Malaria was taken place due to
less considering of the government to control and surveillance. So DDT was
applied again to kill <b><i>Anophline</i></b> mosquitoes but it was not
effective because mosquitoes become more resistant to DDT due to the excess
usage. Then Malathine was introduced to kill <b><i>Anophilne</i></b> mosquitoes.
Same thing was happen. Mosquitoes became resistant to Malathine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                <b>Animal husbandry</b>: It offers addition feeding
for mosquitoes. Therefore mosquitoes population is rapidly increased which may
result in increase feeding frequencies on the human. Those animals also act as
the reservoir host for some disease. Ex: Pigs for Japanese Encephalitis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the impacts
of the vector borne diseases? </span></u></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Emergence of vector borne diseases in
developing countries, the government has to be pumped more money on the health
to control and treatment for the diseases. So it has to be spending money
health rather than development. It cause economic drop down in country. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 5px; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> 2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As a result of serve vector borne
diseases work flow of a country is reduced. 
Beside the economic, thousand of human lives are lost once. If the
householder suffers form a disease, he has to rest in home without going to his
job for long time period. It causes the falling down of economic level of a
family. Since most of people are low income in the developing countries, they
are pushed into further poverty because they have to spend most of their money
on health rather their other requirements. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 5px; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> 3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Outbreaks of vector borne disease
among animal husbandry causes serve lose of economic burden. It causes loss of
life of animals. It reduces meat yield, eggs and milk yields.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">How to control prevent the
reemergence of vector borne diseases?<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">  1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biological control</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is always considered as the best method for controlling vectors
among other methods. The cost is less compare to the chemical control. Ex: Cats
can be used for controlling of rats. Larvivorus fishes are used for controlling
mosquito’s larvae. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">  2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Maintenance of the environmental hygiene</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It helps to prevent or minimize the
mosquitoes breeding. Maintenance of cleaning condition in households helps to
avoid offering breeding places for rats. Proper waste management prevents the
formation of breeding places for mosquitoes breeding. The prevention of
rainwater accumulation in discard materials also dis-encourages the mosquitoes
breeding. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">  3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mass chemotherapy</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Use of chemical treatment for killing parasite is easier than the
killing vector because parasites live in the human body. But vectors live in
the all over the environment. So it is difficult to apply insecticides to each
and every vector. It is important to finish entire chemotherapy course until
the end unless some stages of parasite remain in the body become resistant. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Transmission of Vector Borne Diseases

What is means to be vectorbrone diseases? The disease transmitted from one individual to another by a ve...

Sanitary Landfill as the Best Solution for Solid Waste Management

natural green

Link Author

Title: Sanitary Landfill as the Best Solution for Solid Waste Management
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

With the highest growth of population, higher consumption causes higher waste generation in the world. People tend to dispose their waste o...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With the highest growth of population, higher consumption
causes higher waste generation in the world. People tend to dispose their waste
over there without caring about the environment.  It causes air pollution, water pollution, soil
pollution, degrading aesthetic value of environment and proliferation of
scavenging animals and vectors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What is meant to be a sanitary
landfill?<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     Waste
is disposed in an engineered designed site to avoid negative consequences of
the open dumping of the waste.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What are the major components of
sanitary landfill?<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Linear system- </span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It act as the barrier between the
environment and waste pile in order to prevent derange of leachate into
surrounding soil and ground water table.<b>
<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) Leachate collection and
monitoring system</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-
It collect the leachate that is produced within and bottom from the waste pile
and treated by using appropriate techniques. 
The leachate is taken into a retention pond or treatment plant. Lechate
is degraded thermo chemically or biologically. Then it is taken into wetland.
Here filter bed like <b>Hapu pan</b> is
used to remove the removing traces such as heavy metal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) Gas collection and monitoring
system</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- It collect
the gas that is produced within and from the top of the waste pile. Then gas is
also treated.  The landfill gas is used
as the renewable energy. It can be directly used for home for lighting, cooking
and heating. Landfill gas is also used to electricity generation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(4)Surface water derange system</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- Since it collect all surface runoff
water, it reduce the leachte production. It also prevents the rainwater
contamination.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(5) Cover system-</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> At the end of each and every work
day, daily cover has to be applied. Final cover is applied at the end of active
period of the sanitary landfill. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(6) Ground water and environmental
monitoring system</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-  To prevent negative consequence on the
environment, ground water quality, air quality, surface water quality is
examined once a month</span>. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hRIIZaFyD6U/V-O89t4yK2I/AAAAAAAAAi8/3m8OP2sbpOkibdZ77mO3T53IzMe7TDMQACLcB/s1600/system%2Bground%2Bwater%2Band%2Benviroment%2Bmmoniter.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="338" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hRIIZaFyD6U/V-O89t4yK2I/AAAAAAAAAi8/3m8OP2sbpOkibdZ77mO3T53IzMe7TDMQACLcB/s640/system%2Bground%2Bwater%2Band%2Benviroment%2Bmmoniter.gif" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages of sanitary landfill over
open dumpsite or control dump site<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Since
the bottom of the landfill is covered with a linear system, it prevents derange
of lechate. So fertility of the soil is persevered. pH does not change. Metals
in the soils do not mobile. Quality of the groundwater table is preserved.  After proper treatments, reaming water is
released into the natural environment. Therefore it supports to maintain
hydrological cycle. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  The
landfill gas is carefully removed from the waste pile so spontaneously burring
of waste dose not happen. Those burning produce a dense smoke which contains
particulate martial, heavy metals, SO2, NOx. It causes serve respiratory
problems in the lungs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  The
daily cover prevents the solid materials blowing by winds. It also prevents
unpleasant odor.  The waste martial
dragged and dropped by birds to nearby homes are avoided.  Therefore health of the residents is not
affected. It prevents the formation of breeding place for mosquitoes which act
as disease transmitted agents. Ex: <b><i>Aedes </i></b>mosquitoes prefer rainwater
accumulated containers.  Final cover
supports the surface vegetation. Since it prevents water infiltrating after
finishing active period, it reduce the lechate production. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Surface
water derange system collects all the surface runoff from the site and removes.
Therefore it also reduces lechate production. It prevents the rainwater
contamination.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  The
land of the sanitary landfill is covered with an appropriate fence. It prevents
the entering of scavenging animals like cats, dogs, cow and rats. So it
prevents the proliferation of animals and spread of disease. Ex: Dogs and cats
spread Rabies. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Sanitary
landfill has a tire wash plant for wqaste transportation vehicles. So debris
bounded to the tires is prevented to spread into the nearby areas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">.                                 The
property value nearby residents is preserved near the sanitary landfill. Property
value near open dump site is degraded. 
Even nearby peoples tend to sell their properties and move into better
areas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Health
of the worker of sanitary land fill is maintained at a good level. Therefore their
economic level dose not fails. But in the case of open dumpsite or control
dumpsite, health of workers is very bad. They often suffer from skin disease,
parasites and biting of scavengers. They have to be spending more money on
their health. Therefore their economic level fails. They spend unpleasant life.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  The
life span of the sanitary landfill is higher than that of the open dumpsites
depending on the size. After completed of active period of sanitary landfill,
it can be gradually proceed into human usage with proper caring and maintenance
like public parks. <o:p></o:p></span></div>

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Sanitary Landfill as the Best Solution for Solid Waste Management

With the highest growth of population, higher consumption causes higher waste generation in the world. People tend to dispose their waste o...

Determination of primary productivity in freshwater ecosystem

natural green

Link Author

Title: Determination of primary productivity in freshwater ecosystem
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Primary productivity is the major energy fixation in the freshwater ecosystem. According to the productivity, the lake is divided into vert...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Primary productivity is the major energy fixation in the
freshwater ecosystem. According to the productivity, the lake is divided into
vertical and horizontal strata. Dominant photosynthetic organisms are also
differ one strata to other. Primary photosynthesis of littoral zone where is
the shallow water of edge of lakes is contributed by macrophysics.  Primary photosynthesis of limentic zone where
is the top of the water column is dominated by the phytoplankton and algae.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Gross
primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of the food produced by
photosynthetic organism in given time in a given area.  A part of the produced food is consumed for
cellular respiration. After respiration, remaining of initial produced food is
defined as the Net Primary Productivity (NPP). NPP is available for the increase
of the biomass of organisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) is used as the index to predict the primary productivity of the
freshwater ecosystems. Dark and light bottle method and C14 method are used for
determination of DO.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dark and light bottle method<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              Primary
productivity of the lake is measured at different depths from the water surface
in two hour time interval within the day. The procedure is done by as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 78.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">   1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Water
samples are collected from following depth 0cm, 25cm, 50cm, 75cm and 100cm from
the surface.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 78.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">   2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
is allowed the bottle to fill with water completely. As soon as the bottles are
filled, glass stoppers are inserted into the bottles without air bubbles under
the water. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 78.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">   3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After
water filled, initial bottles are collected. 
The light bottles and dark bottles are tied and fixed in relevant depth
for 2 hour period.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 78.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">   4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
DO in initial, light and dark bottles is determined by using the Winkler
method. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">   5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The procedure is repeated for several
time intervals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Calculation<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Initial bottles are used to determine initial DO in each time
intervals. Since the dark bottles are covered by black coat, it is not allowed
light to penetrate. Therefore photosynthesis does not happen in dark bottles.
Only produced DO is consumed. Only cellular respiration (CRR) is taken
place.  But in the case of light bottles,
it is allowed light to penetrate. Therefore the photosynthesis is continued. So
both photosynthesis and cellular respiration is also taken place in the light
bottles.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      CRR=
(DO) initial- (DO) dark<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      NPP=
(DO) light-(DO) initial<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      GPP=
NPP+CRR<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                           So
GPP= (DO) light-(DO) dark<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The variation of
primary productivity Vs depth<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Acp94j8YpPg/V-NOvT8k_NI/AAAAAAAAAig/aMaSJVUnk9cZjkuT2Q0X9qR10jQOoxxlgCLcB/s1600/productivty%2Bvs%2Bdepth.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Acp94j8YpPg/V-NOvT8k_NI/AAAAAAAAAig/aMaSJVUnk9cZjkuT2Q0X9qR10jQOoxxlgCLcB/s400/productivty%2Bvs%2Bdepth.jpg" width="397" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The maximum primary productivity is recorded slight below the
surface due to the higher light intensity. It causes photo-inhibition of
phytoplankton and reduces primary productivity. 
Primary productivity is higher in the euphotic zone where the light
penetration is taken place. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">

</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                      With
the depth, transparency of the water column is reduced. So the light
penetration becomes limited. Therefore primary productivity is decreased
gradually downward.  Since the primary
productivity is zero or limited in the bottom due to the absence of light, DO
in the bottom are carried from the top layer by the water circulation. DO is
consumed largely by decomposing organisms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

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Determination of primary productivity in freshwater ecosystem

Primary productivity is the major energy fixation in the freshwater ecosystem. According to the productivity, the lake is divided into vert...

Mosquito Sampling Techniques

natural green

Link Author

Title: Mosquito Sampling Techniques
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Adluts Sampling techniques (1)Landing collection Adult mosquitoes lading on the people or animals are ...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Adluts Sampling techniques<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Landing collection</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                            </span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-4kIJfiqPQDM/WAywfeIlrtI/AAAAAAAAAmM/rgem-C88dZQblAIsf8WXhx_BPcWYSP49ACLcB/s1600/mosquito-parts.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="223" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-4kIJfiqPQDM/WAywfeIlrtI/AAAAAAAAAmM/rgem-C88dZQblAIsf8WXhx_BPcWYSP49ACLcB/s320/mosquito-parts.gif" width="320" /></a></span></div>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Adult
mosquitoes lading on the people or animals are collected by using a vial and a
polythene bag. So both zoophilic and anthopophilic misquotes can be collected.
This method is used to study the biting time of mosquitoes. It is a labor
consuming method. It is a time consuming method.  Diseases can be transmitted from mosquitoes
into human body.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Oviposition trap<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             A
jar with wide mouth is used as the oviposition trap.  The jar is painted in black color because
mosquitoes prefer shady environments. It is used to attract gravid female
mosquitoes of <b><i>Aedes</i></b> sp. Hey fusion is used as the attractor. Different
species of <b><i>Aedes </i></b>mosquitoes can be attracted by changing the concentration
of hey fusion. <b><i>Aedes</i></b> mosquitoes lay eggs dry surface around the sides of
containers and plastic stick above the water level. Eggs have to be counted
following day unless eggs hatch and larvae emerge.  It is a cheap method. Oviposition traps
cannot be used for collecting other mosquitoes types expect <b><i>Aedes</i></b>.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)Resting box<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                            Resting
boxes are made of a small wooden box which is covered with a black non
reflective paper because mosquitoes attracts shady environment. Its outside is
covered with a muslin cloth and one end is open.  There is high probability to mosquitoes be
escape from the resting box. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(4) Sticky trap<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              It
is used to collect adult mosquitoes from the both outside and inside. It is
paced in dark and shady places. Appropriate bait is used to attract the
mosquitoes. It is very is to handle. It is not a labor consuming method. It is
a time consuming method.  Mosquitoes can
be damaged or died due to the stickiness.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(5)Pooter/Aspirator<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                 Both
adult female and male mosquitoes can be collected from their resting places by
using pooter or aspirator. Resting palces are varying with the species. Resting
place of <b><i>Aedes</i></b> mosquitoes is outside vegetation. Resting places for <b><i>Anophiline</i></b>
mosquitoes is inside the houses.  Mosquitoes are drawn into the main chamber of
the pooter by sucking at the mouth piece. Adult mosquitoes can be collected
without any damage or minimum damage. It is a time consuming method. It is
labor intensive. Diseases can be transmitted through the pooter to the user. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Why it is very
difficult to catch adult male misquotes?<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                          Since
adult males are plant nectar feeders, they are usually caught from resting
places in the vegetation by using pooter or aspiration because they can be
attracted by female mosquitoes. Although female mosquitoes are also plant
nectar feeders, they attract to human or animals in order fulfill their blood
requirements for their eggs developments. Therefore adult female mosquitoes can
be easily caught. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Larvae sampling
techniques<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Siphoning<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                            
Larva is extracted into a small tube according to a pressure gradient by
siphoning. It is used to collect larva from small habitats such as tree holes.
So it cannot be used for large habitats. Larval density cannot be determined. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Pippeting<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       It
is used to collect larvae from small water bodies. So it also cannot be used to
collect larvae from small water bodies. Larval density cannot be determined by
using pipette.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)Dipping<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Larvae
form the large water bodies are collected by using a scoop or a dipper. It can
be used to collect larvae from different depth from surface.  Larval density can be determined by using
dipping method.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(4)Netting or funnel
trap<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       It
is made of a nylon net which attached to iron ring. The iron ring is attached
to a handle.  It used to collect larval
from large water bodies like wells. It can be used to determine larval
density.  Larvae from small habitats
cannot be collected by using netting or funnel trap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Mosquito Sampling Techniques

Adluts Sampling techniques (1)Landing collection Adult mosquitoes lading on the people or animals are ...

Measurement of Transparency in Water

natural green

Link Author

Title: Measurement of Transparency in Water
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Transparency of the water is measured as the measure of turbidity. Turbidity of the water restricts the light penetration. It affects the p...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Transparency of the water is measured as the measure of
turbidity. Turbidity of the water restricts the light penetration. It affects
the primary productivity and distribution of organisms such as phytoplankton
and fishes in the water column. Some organisms use their vision to find their
food. They are interfered by the high turbidity.  Two types of turbidity are available in water
such as organic turbidity and inorganic turbidity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             
Organic turbidity is caused by dead organic materials (detritus),
phytoplankton and zooplankton. Organic turbidity is considered as an index of
primary productivity because higher the organic turbidity means higher number
of photosynthetic organisms. So it increases the primary productivity. But
since the photosynthetic organism tend to be retain near the surface in order
grab maximum sunlight they restricts the depth which available for themselves
to live. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Inorganic
turbidity is caused by suspended clay and slit particles. It reduces the light
penetration through the water column. Therefore eventually altogether both
organic turbidity and inorganic turbidity decreases the light penetration and
reduces the space available for the life.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Turbidity
is measured by using two method such as sechi disk and seston weight method. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sechi disk<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       It
is a disk with 20cm diameter. It is dived into four quarts with altering black
and white. The disk is lowered into the water aid in a thin rope. The depth
where the white color quarts disappear is measured as the sechi depth. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-FN9EDVofpcQ/V-J8Ws5uhEI/AAAAAAAAAiE/6IQ7xNz0bWEo-WvGVHsiyrEJvCm6GybrACLcB/s1600/light%2Bpeneteration.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="288" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-FN9EDVofpcQ/V-J8Ws5uhEI/AAAAAAAAAiE/6IQ7xNz0bWEo-WvGVHsiyrEJvCm6GybrACLcB/s640/light%2Bpeneteration.PNG" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 10px; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">   
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It
is not measured organic turbidity and inorganic turbidity separately. It gives
reading of combination of organic turbidity and inorganic turbidity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 10px; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Readings are user dependent because
visibility changes person to person. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 10px; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Readings are influenced by external
environmental factors such as solar intensity and waves.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 10px; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If it does not shrink straight, it
does not give accurate readings. A weight is hanged to the bottom surface to
direct the disk to shrink directly. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Seston method<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         It
supports to measure organic turbidity and inorganic turbidity both in quantity
and quality. The procedure is done as follows. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: 75.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
weight of nitrocellulose paper is weighed. (w1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Known
volume of water is filtrated through the filter paper. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
filtrate is dried at 80°c in an oven for 24 hours. Then weight of fitter paper
and residue is weighed. (w2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Total
seston weight= (w1-w2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
filter paper and residue is burned in a Muffle Furnace at 450°-500°C for 12
hours.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then
weight of residue after burning is weighed.(w3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Inorganic
turbidity= w3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">       
</span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Organic
turbidity= (w1-w2)-w3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Readings are not influenced by
eternal environmental factors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Organic turbidity and inorganic
turbidity can be measured separately. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 10px; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Errors are possible due to the
instruments. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>

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Measurement of Transparency in Water

Transparency of the water is measured as the measure of turbidity. Turbidity of the water restricts the light penetration. It affects the p...

Variation of Oxygen in freshwater ecosystem

natural green

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Title: Variation of Oxygen in freshwater ecosystem
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Why Oxygen is important for life? Oxygen is the one of the limiting factor for the life. Since most of the lif...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Why Oxygen is important for life?<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Oxygen
is the one of the limiting factor for the life. Since most of the life forms
are aerobic except few, they inhibit in the water with high Oxygen content. Vertical
distribution of phytoplankton and fishes are influenced by the DO. So they are
restricted to surface layers of the mot water body. When Oxygen is reduced to
zero or limited aerobic life forms are replaced by anaerobic life.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration
of aerobic life.  Some of anaerobic life
forms are inactive until Oxygen is available again such as Chirognomid larvae.
Animals which have Hemoglobin in the blood can tolerate for low Oxygen level
because hemoglobin has ability to grab, store and transport four Oxygen
molecules once into inner cells in the body. Ex: <b><i>Tubifex</i></b> sp<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Variation in the
lentic ecosystem<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Lentic
ecosystems are the standing water bodies such as lakes, ponds, marshes and
swamps. Dissolved Oxygen content (DO) is influenced by the temperature,
community respiration and decomposition. Amount of Oxygen is determined by the
diffusion, water circulation (water mixing) and photosynthesis. The rate of
diffusion of Oxygen in the lentic ecosystem is less compare to the
atmosphere.  Water circulation determines
the vertical Oxygen distribution throughout the water column. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             
 Photosynthesis is varying
according to the depth as well as time of the day.  Therefore amount of Oxygen produced by
photosynthesis is also followed by such fluctuations and variations. In the
morning photosynthesis and DO is less due to the less solar intensity. From
morning to noon, photosynthesis and DO are high due to the increasing solar
intensity. The highest DO and photosynthesis is recorded in the noon due to the
maximum solar intensity. DO and photosynthesis are aging decreasing from noon
to evening due to the decreasing solar intensity.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JgMj_3plhlw/V-H8opcs0wI/AAAAAAAAAhk/xdmMObztt4ErvHhJeU1h10ViP8kDN7JIQCEw/s1600/dissolved%2Boxygen.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JgMj_3plhlw/V-H8opcs0wI/AAAAAAAAAhk/xdmMObztt4ErvHhJeU1h10ViP8kDN7JIQCEw/s400/dissolved%2Boxygen.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When consider the variation of DO according to the depth,
maximum DO is reported slight below the water surface because photosynthesis is
limited in the surface due to the photo-inhibition of photosynthetic organisms.
 Photosynthesis is reduced gradually due
to the decreasing light penetration. But community respiration is high. So
Oxygen is largely consumed by organisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         At
the bottom of the deep lakes, Oxygen availability is limited or zero because
photosynthesis is not taken place due to the absence of light. Community
respiration is also high. But large amount of Oxygen is consumed by decomposing
organism. Therefore bottom of the deep lake does not support aerobic life. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         But
in the case of shallow lakes, DO is high in even bottom due the high light
penetration. Plant growth can be found at the bottom. Therefore large amount of
oxygen is produced. Although decomposition is carried out, DO does not become
limited due to the high productivity. Therefore bottom of the shallow lake
supports the aerobic life. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         When
the solar intensity is increasing in the absence of strong winds, a temperature
gradient is created from top to the bottom. Thermociline acts as a density
barrier between warm surface water and clod bottom water. It causes water
stratification and prevents water mixing. Therefore DO on the surface layer is
not transported to bottom layer. So bottom layer interfere with limited Oxygen
supply and cannot support aerobic life anymore. But suddenly wind action can
break the stratification and start the water mixing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">

</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Doing
the some period of the year, surface temperature falls, bottom temperature and
surface temperature become similar .Therefore since there is no density
barrier, water starts to missing. Oxygen availability is high throughout the
water column.  It supports aerobic life.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-zvvSLQwqTGY/V-H8ooGfv0I/AAAAAAAAAhg/HnStLDxcKxUtk9WTPeXnkXwzQqrsEEd2wCLcB/s1600/aerobic%2Blife.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="327" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-zvvSLQwqTGY/V-H8ooGfv0I/AAAAAAAAAhg/HnStLDxcKxUtk9WTPeXnkXwzQqrsEEd2wCLcB/s400/aerobic%2Blife.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Solubility of Oxygen in the water is directly affected by the
water temperature. If the water temperature is high, it reduces the Oxygen
solubility in the water.  Low
temperatures increase the Oxygen solubility. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Variation in loctic ecosystem<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Loctic
ecosystems are moving water bodies such as waterfalls and rivers. Since lotic
water bodies are shallow compare to the lentic water bodies, DO is high
throughout the water column because plant growth can be found due to the high
light penetration. Turbulence increases the DO. 
Stratification is rarely occurred in lotic systems, water circulation is
continuously carried out. Therefore availability o Oxygen throughout the water
column is high.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">                         </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Variation
of DO is taken place from upper reaches to lower reaches. DO is near saturation
in upper reaches due to the fat river flow and turbulence. DO is limited is less
in lower reaches due to the low rate of photosynthesis because sedminets tend
to deposit due to slow flow rate. It restricts the light penetration. </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Variation of Oxygen in freshwater ecosystem

Why Oxygen is important for life? Oxygen is the one of the limiting factor for the life. Since most of the lif...

Problems encounter in Aedes mosquito surveillance

natural green

Link Author

Title: Problems encounter in Aedes mosquito surveillance
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Why the results of Dengue mosquito surveillance are not very accurate? Assumptions: All detrains are considered as containers. ...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u>Why the results of
Dengue mosquito surveillance are not very accurate?<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
Assumptions:     All
detrains are considered as containers.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
                           All
mosquitoes larvae are assumed as <i>Aedes</i>
mosquitoes.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                              <i>Aedes</i> surveillance are carried
out during dry season, following mistakes/ errors are taken place.  Mosquito eggs are able to inactive for long
time period till favorable conditions are returned. So there is high probability
to results to be inaccurate.  <i>Aedes</i> misquotes are container breeders.
They use clean and clear water for their eggs lying.  They also cannot be found in moving water.
But some of detrains in the premises contain moving water. Therefore larvae
found in the moving water cannot be <i>Aedes
</i>larvae. Water containing organic matter from sinks are directed into
detrains. Since <i>Aedes</i> larvae prefer
clean and clear water, larvae found in organically polluted water cannot be <i>Aedes</i> larvae.  It is difficult to examine all containers in
the premises. It is impossible to reach gutters and discard tires on the roof.
Therefore results cannot be very accurate. The risk may be higher than the
observed value. Due to the low risk, control measures may be not applied or not
considered. <o:p></o:p><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2Lp3jMUBJPE/WAyxBayfXVI/AAAAAAAAAmU/uyGcmJcP21A5Y2NZp7LXweAvAPsaHfrmQCLcB/s1600/P1010022_crop.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2Lp3jMUBJPE/WAyxBayfXVI/AAAAAAAAAmU/uyGcmJcP21A5Y2NZp7LXweAvAPsaHfrmQCLcB/s320/P1010022_crop.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
           If
the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u>Why pupae surveys
are rarely done?<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                            Because
it is very difficult to identify pupae till the species level.  So it takes more time and less effective. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u>What are the
disadvantages of adult surveys?<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                             Most
of adult survey use human baits. But it is not convenient ethically because
parasite can be transmitted from mosquito vector into human body. So people
with low immunity, there is high probability to be suffered from diseases. It
is a time consuming method. Although they active during day time, It is
difficult to catch because they active only 7-10 in the morning and 3-5 in the
afternoon. Adults can be collected from their resting habitats such as shady
and shadow places. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u>What are the
control measures?<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                               For
high risk areas, eggs, larvae, pupae and adults are killed. Mosquito breeding
is avoided or minimized. Waste should be disposed in a proper way. Water
accumulation in both natural and artificial containers should be minimized.
Insecticides should be applied to kill larvae and adults. Larvivorous fishes
such as <i>Poecilia reticulata</i> should be
introduced to reduce larvae. Chemical repellents such as citric oil and
chemical applied net should be used to disturb the contact between misquotes
and human. <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                               Low
risk areas are clean and no breeding places are available for mosquito
breeding. For low risk area, no need to apply control measure. It is required
to maintain environment hygiene in order to prevent to be high risk area. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Problems encounter in Aedes mosquito surveillance

Why the results of Dengue mosquito surveillance are not very accurate? Assumptions: All detrains are considered as containers. ...

NaturalGreen

Weed control and management

Seedless non vascular plants (Phylum Pterophyta)

Oxygen Relationship of Organisms

Winogradsky Column

Transmission of Vector Borne Diseases

Sanitary Landfill as the Best Solution for Solid Waste Management

Determination of primary productivity in freshwater ecosystem

Mosquito Sampling Techniques

Measurement of Transparency in Water

Variation of Oxygen in freshwater ecosystem

Problems encounter in Aedes mosquito surveillance

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