Precipitation introduction

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">5.1 <b><u>What is precipitation?</u></b></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">            The process of transportation of water from the atmosphere to the earth's surface is defined as precipitation</span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">. </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Precipitation can occur in liquid or solid forms. Precipitation is the result of water droplets around nuclei or the formation of ice crystals.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">        </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Two conditions must be fulfilled for forming precipitation.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                          (1) The air must be saturated-Air masses can be saturated by three methods.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Clashing of different air masses (Hot, humid masses and cool, dry air masses)  <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b) The connection</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> between moist air masses and cool objects.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 30.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">c)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">  </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Adiabatic process (Without entering or leaving of heat, pressure and volume changes)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                 (2) Presence of small airborne particles called aerosols.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-VuQ5xnbWop0/VenIwgzP8ZI/AAAAAAAAAM4/rvKSjPMPRI0/s1600/nuclei.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-VuQ5xnbWop0/VenIwgzP8ZI/AAAAAAAAAM4/rvKSjPMPRI0/s1600/nuclei.jpg" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt; tab-stops: 57.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">The available condensation nucleus is two types. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 57.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">   </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">  Hygroscopic particles (Salts)-Salts are made condensing before the air becomes saturated.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 99.0pt; tab-stops: 92.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Ex: Crystals of Nitrate (NO-3), Phosphate (PO43-)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; tab-stops: 69.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">b) Non-Hygroscopic particles-According to their sizes, supersaturation is essential. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                             Ex: Smoke, dust, ash<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; tab-stops: 109.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">5.2 <u>Types of precipitation<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; tab-stops: 109.5pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; tab-stops: 109.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Four types of precipitation have occurred on the earth. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">               (1) Orographic precipitation- Warm, humid air masses move horizontally form coastal areas to nearby mountains. With clashing of air mass with mountains, air masses are started to rise by uplift forces. Warm air masses are getting cool with increasing height because the temperature is decreased with increasing height. After the saturation of air, additional water vapors are tended to condense because cool air cannot hold water vapors as much as hot air. Therefore clouds are formed after saturation. Precipitation has occurred.   <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Kp01L_UqBt4/VenIyT3rMEI/AAAAAAAAANM/XKr6itaTQKs/s1600/leeward.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Kp01L_UqBt4/VenIyT3rMEI/AAAAAAAAANM/XKr6itaTQKs/s320/leeward.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(2) Convectional precipitation-When the land surface heat, above the air, is heated by land. As air heat, the air began to move further. With the distance between molecules increases, they are less densely packed. The air becomes lighter and expands. Air masses get cooling. After saturation, additional water vapors are condensed and clouds are formed. Precipitation has occurred. </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pJj7q-ivivk/VenIwCikrfI/AAAAAAAAAM0/peReaSFIRUA/s1600/clouds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="175" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-pJj7q-ivivk/VenIwCikrfI/AAAAAAAAAM0/peReaSFIRUA/s320/clouds.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 14pt;">(3) Cyclonic precipitation-Cyclonic precipitation has occurred in low-pressure areas. Air masses move form high pressure in nearby surface areas to the low-pressure areas above. Air getting cooled and clouds are formed. Precipitation has occurred.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jSQRuxguSUg/VenIwmZFiII/AAAAAAAAAM8/nkaZLwJjlhk/s1600/clods.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jSQRuxguSUg/VenIwmZFiII/AAAAAAAAAM8/nkaZLwJjlhk/s320/clods.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(4) Frontal precipitation-When warm, humid air mass and cool, dry air mass are met, cool air tightly packed together so cool air is heavier than dry air so the warm air is forced to rise above cool air. When warm humid air rises, the air gets cool. After the saturation of air, clouds are formed. Precipitation has occurred.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt; tab-stops: 111.75pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">5.4Forms of precipitations<o:p></o:p></span></u><br /> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">         (1) Liquid precipitation<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                 (a) Rain (Diameter of water droplets is more than 0.5mm)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                 Light rain – Intensity of rainfall is up to 2.5 mm/h<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 125.25pt; tab-stops: 125.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Moderate rain – Intensity of rainfall is 2.5 to 7.5 mm/h<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 125.25pt; tab-stops: 125.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Heavy rain – Intensity of rainfall is more than 7.5 mm/h<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                       (b) Drizzle (Diameter of water droplets is less than 0.5mm)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                 (2) Solid precipitation<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WWmdLLbom_4/VenJ2j3FkXI/AAAAAAAAANU/8uUsDlw-8Xc/s1600/warmair.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WWmdLLbom_4/VenJ2j3FkXI/AAAAAAAAANU/8uUsDlw-8Xc/s320/warmair.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <o:p></o:p><br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Snow-Snow is precipitation of crystal ice. Solid water is consolidating together and become flakes.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                              Sleet- Sleets are small snow particles. They are formed as snowflakes are melted and refreeze at a subfreezing temperature in the atmosphere before reach the earth's surface. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                              Hail- Small pieces of ice are formed through up and down of the convectional currents by melting and cooling.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                              Dew- Condensation of water vapors is at the temperature below the dew point. Water vapors are condensed by emission their energy to around the environment. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; tab-stops: 109.5pt;"> <br /></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Precipitation introduction

5.1  What is precipitation?             The process of transportation of water from the atmosphere to the earth's surface is defi...

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Runoff introduction and factors affecting runoff

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">4.1 <u>What is the runoff?<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; tab-stops: 165.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">  Runoff is the water flow through the streams, rivers, and rills.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; tab-stops: 165.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-c9B2v4esNgo/Vdx1U5LkG6I/AAAAAAAAAMA/_q5cqkZXwxM/s1600/runOff.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="218" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-c9B2v4esNgo/Vdx1U5LkG6I/AAAAAAAAAMA/_q5cqkZXwxM/s320/runOff.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; tab-stops: 165.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">4.2 <u>Types of runoff<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-EOgdGZR640o/Vdx1dBcRsGI/AAAAAAAAAMI/cYUVtI3EPh8/s1600/waterTabel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="134" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-EOgdGZR640o/Vdx1dBcRsGI/AAAAAAAAAMI/cYUVtI3EPh8/s320/waterTabel.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(1)Surface runoff<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                     After all losses such as interception, infiltration, and transpiration overland flow have occurred. That enters streams immediately as soon as.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(2)Subsurface runoff<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                        The proportion of the rainfall is entered into the soil vertically. Then the water flows laterally towards stream without join to the water table. It takes little time to reach the stream.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(3)Baseflow<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                        Delayed flow is defined as base flow. First, enter the soil and vertically flows towards the groundwater table.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                        Take relatively long period such as month or year to join streams.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">               4.3 <u>Factors affecting runoff</u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt;">(1)Climatic</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                     -Precipitation<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 120.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 77.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Type of precipitation (Rainfall or snowfall)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 120.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 77.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">b)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Rainfall intensity (When rainfall intensity is relatively high, infiltration capacity is low therefore rainfall excess create runoff.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 120.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 77.25pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">c)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Duration (When the duration of precipitation is relatively high, infiltration capacity is less so runoff has occurred.) <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 120.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 81.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">d)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Rainfall distribution (Runoff vary according to the proportions of the catchments. Outlets obtained relatively more precipitation therefore peak flow has occurred more quickly.) <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Temperature (Interception is relatively high at high temperature so most of the water evaporates back to the atmosphere so runoff can be limited)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Humidity (Evaporation is limited under the high relative humid air so high runoff is occurred.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Wind velocity (Interception and transpiration is relatively high under high wind velocity so runoff is limited.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">-Annual rainfall (High annual rainfall forms larger rainfalls so runoff occurs more quickly.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(2) The direction of the prevailing wind (When the direction of both prevailing wind and water flow is same, peak flow is occurred very quickly.) <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(3) Physiographic factors<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 73.5pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">              -Factors of watershed<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                           (a)Size of a watershed (Larger watershed need relatively more time to deliver water to outlet, therefore peak flow has occurred later. Smaller watershed need relatively less time to deliver water to the outlet, therefore peak flow is occurred fast.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cIfhJHtVAf0/Vdx2IiJnmvI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/royY211GWvk/s1600/prections.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="268" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cIfhJHtVAf0/Vdx2IiJnmvI/AAAAAAAAAMQ/royY211GWvk/s320/prections.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">(b)The shape of a watershed- Fan-shaped, fan-shaped (elongated) and broad shaped (In fan shaped watershed, nearby tributaries deliver runoff toward the outer more quickly than furthest tributaries, therefore, peak runoff is less. In a broadly shaped watershed, all of the tributaries are delivered runoff the same time towards the outlet. Therefore peak runoff is occurred more quickly and has a large amount)</span><span style="background: black; border: 1pt none black; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 0pt; padding: 0in;"> </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CBf_cgZrz5w/Vdx1SJPLezI/AAAAAAAAAL0/fMvgOCHhf44/s1600/outLet.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="165" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CBf_cgZrz5w/Vdx1SJPLezI/AAAAAAAAAL0/fMvgOCHhf44/s320/outLet.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">(c)Orientation of watershed (Win wand side has occurred relatively more runoff than a leeward side because the windward side of mountains gets more rainfall than the leeward side.)</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vUv_qLHmaoI/Vdx1TVGEv_I/AAAAAAAAAL8/a2x1wYBGlUw/s1600/runOffIN.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vUv_qLHmaoI/Vdx1TVGEv_I/AAAAAAAAAL8/a2x1wYBGlUw/s320/runOffIN.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">              -Land use<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo1; tab-stops: 114.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Forest (Soil of forests have relatively more organic matter so infiltration capacity is high therefore runoff is relatively lees.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo1; tab-stops: 114.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 14.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Barren land (Soils of barren land have relatively lowest organic matter so infiltration capacity is less therefore runoff is relatively high.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">               -Factors of soil<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                    (a)Type of soil(Light textured soils such as sandy soils have relatively lower runoff than heavy soils such as clay because light-textured soil has relatively larger pores that are well connected together so infiltration capacity is high therefore runoff is less.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                     (b)Soil moisture (High moist soils have less infiltration capacity so runoff is high. Less moist soils have high infiltration capacity therefore runoff is low.)    <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                     -Topographic factors<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                             (a)Slope(Steep the slope has relatively high runoff  because the water flows more rapidly along the slope so soils can’t absorb water as much as soils in flat land so infiltration capacity is lees therefore runoff is high.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt;">                                             </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">(b)Channel characters-Density, slope, length, storage, and shape</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"> </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 120.75pt; text-indent: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:382.5pt; height:236.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\MADHUS~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg" o:title="infiltraion45"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Runoff introduction and factors affecting runoff

4.1 What is the runoff?   Runoff is the water flow through the streams, rivers, and rills. 4.2 Types of runoff (1)Su...

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Infiltration Introduction

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.1 What is the infiltration? <o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                                 <span style="font-size: large;">Infiltration is a flow of water through the soil surface.<br /><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;">Infiltration effects to runoff, transpiration, and evaporation. </span></span><br /> <o:p></o:p></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NoI1mCrLgdY/VcOKB3KtddI/AAAAAAAAAKk/Eu2bD4L91PY/s1600/rainFall.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="167" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NoI1mCrLgdY/VcOKB3KtddI/AAAAAAAAAKk/Eu2bD4L91PY/s320/rainFall.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">Infiltration capacity- With time, infiltration is decreased and infiltration capacity has remained constant. Pores in the soil are less filled with water before precipitation. When precipitation has occurred, pores are getting to fill water. After saturation of all pores in the soil, water cannot be absorbed anymore, therefore, infiltration capacity has become constant.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QHoBesHw5U0/VcOKAz6IBYI/AAAAAAAAAKc/ieiXtrcWzVI/s1600/rate1.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-QHoBesHw5U0/VcOKAz6IBYI/AAAAAAAAAKc/ieiXtrcWzVI/s320/rate1.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zWJYU7JMLuA/VcOKg9aHcuI/AAAAAAAAALI/FrQFWJKPr0s/s1600/rate2.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="224" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zWJYU7JMLuA/VcOKg9aHcuI/AAAAAAAAALI/FrQFWJKPr0s/s320/rate2.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.2 Factors affecting infiltration<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">(1) Rainfall<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: large;">-Intensity (When infiltration capacity is higher than rainfall capacity, all the rain is infiltrated. When rainfall intensity is higher than infiltration capacity, infiltration is less and runoff has occurred.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 45.75pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: large;">-Duration (Duration of rainfall is high, infiltration is less and runoff has occurred after a few hours.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">(2) Climate<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: large;">-When the temperature is relatively high, the rate of microbial activities is high.  Therefore relatively more amount of organic matter is added to soil surface cover so soil particles are well aggregated so the size of pores is large and infiltration capacity is relatively high.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">(3) Soil characters <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                  -Soil type(Light color soils such as sandy soils have relatively larger infiltration capacity than heavy soils such as clay soils because sandy soils have relatively larger pores that are well connected together than clay soils.)</span><o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">               </span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Il3vNMU3wbU/VcOKCzDtSUI/AAAAAAAAAK0/3jrFD4LdVPk/s1600/rate3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Il3vNMU3wbU/VcOKCzDtSUI/AAAAAAAAAK0/3jrFD4LdVPk/s320/rate3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> -<span style="font-size: large;">Compaction(Compacted soils have relatively lower infiltration capacity than loose soils because of size and amount of pores in compacted soil is relatively very small therefore compacted soils have less infiltration capacity.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                  -Sun cracks (When soils contain sun cracks, these soils have relatively larger infiltration capacity because soils are so dry and have relatively lowest amount of water.  Therefore infiltration capacity is relatively high. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                      -Depth to storage (When depth between the surface and storage is relatively high, infiltration capacity is high                      because of amount of pores are increased with increasing of depth, therefore, more water is needed to saturated for pores, therefore, infiltration capacity is relatively high.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                      -Soil moisture (When soil have relatively less moisture content, soils can absorb more water, therefore, infiltration capacity is relatively high. High moist soils can absorb relatively less amount of water, therefore, infiltration capacity is restively low.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                      -Soil slope(Steep slopes have relatively less infiltration capacity because of water flows rapidly so water is not retained for a long period so soils can absorb more water, therefore, infiltration capacity is relatively less. Gentle slope have relatively high infiltration capacity because the water flows slowly so water retain in surface relatively long-time period so soils can absorb more water therefore infiltration capacity is restively high.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">(4) Cultivation practices <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                        -Closely growing vegetation (Soils are less compacted so infiltration capacity is high)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                        -Land preparation (Surface roughness is increased in land preparation practices  so infiltration capacity become high)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">(5) Surface cover<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                         -Vegetation cover type (When land has row crops vegetation, most of the land are uncovered of vegetation. Therefore soils are relatively more compacted and consist of low amount of organic matter, therefore, soils have relatively less infiltration capacity.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                         -Organic matter on the surface (When organic matter is relatively high on the surface, infiltration capacity is high because organic matter can hold a large amount of water and allows movement toward soil)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: large;">                         -Urban paving(Most of the soils in cities are covered by artificial instructions so these soils are avoided to absorb water by these artificial layers so infiltration capacity is relatively low in cities.</span><o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                 <u>3.3 Computing of Infiltration <o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kostiakov’s equation<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3do4IfOqPbk/VcONX54RR2I/AAAAAAAAALU/xHmoX6KV2YQ/s1600/str.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3do4IfOqPbk/VcONX54RR2I/AAAAAAAAALU/xHmoX6KV2YQ/s1600/str.png" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                                                                                 <!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:154.5pt;height:69.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\MADHUS~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png" o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I = Cumulative depth of infiltration<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">t = time</span><o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">k and n are constants<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                                      <!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:201pt; height:81.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\MADHUS~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image002.png" o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4LuuRE-fbU0/VcONX9Bh9uI/AAAAAAAAALY/KK99Aw6nO5g/s1600/str2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4LuuRE-fbU0/VcONX9Bh9uI/AAAAAAAAALY/KK99Aw6nO5g/s1600/str2.png" /></a></div>                     <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 128.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">i = infiltration rate<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 128.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 128.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 128.25pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.4 Measurement of infiltration<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 128.25pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Double ring infiltrometer</span></u><i> <o:p></o:p></i></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DPbcy6e3fuU/VcOKC90wlGI/AAAAAAAAAK4/rBwz1egLmiI/s1600/pic1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="268" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DPbcy6e3fuU/VcOKC90wlGI/AAAAAAAAAK4/rBwz1egLmiI/s320/pic1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-rw_eiE4_BJc/VcOKC_ZoCNI/AAAAAAAAAK8/eShKcgmonMw/s1600/solis.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="217" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-rw_eiE4_BJc/VcOKC_ZoCNI/AAAAAAAAAK8/eShKcgmonMw/s320/solis.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-d9eATYx7L9c/VcOKhob9MHI/AAAAAAAAALM/RzavGrCBzTA/s1600/solis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="299" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-d9eATYx7L9c/VcOKhob9MHI/AAAAAAAAALM/RzavGrCBzTA/s320/solis.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <i><br /></i></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The surface vegetation is cleaned without disrobing soil surface.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Rings are put into 15cm.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A plastic / polythene sheet is put inner ring and filled water for particular depth. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Water is poured into the outer ring and allowed it to infiltrate.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The plastic sheets are removed from inner rings and start recording depth with time<o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Infiltration Introduction

3.1 What is the infiltration?                                 Infiltration is a flow of water through the soil surface. Infiltration ef...

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Interception Introduction

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.1 What is the interception?<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; line-height: 115%;"> Interception is natural or artificial covers intercept of falling water droplets toward to ground. These water droplets store on the surface of the tress, after fails to the ground or evaporate back to the atmosphere.   </span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-C0O9KrFbD8M/VcEHoYiMWwI/AAAAAAAAAJ8/LQ7dFgaMQxA/s1600/waterTabel.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="188" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-C0O9KrFbD8M/VcEHoYiMWwI/AAAAAAAAAJ8/LQ7dFgaMQxA/s320/waterTabel.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               2.2 <u>Components of interception</u></span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-rpUWEOI4TTA/VcEHze6jsNI/AAAAAAAAAKI/WNb5ZP_s8P8/s1600/intercepitons.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-rpUWEOI4TTA/VcEHze6jsNI/AAAAAAAAAKI/WNb5ZP_s8P8/s320/intercepitons.jpg" width="254" /></a></div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> (1)Interception loss (I)<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 51.75pt;">        Water retained in the surface and evaporates or absorb by the plants later.<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> (2) Throughfall(TF)<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                        Water falls through spaces in the vegetation canopy or falls along the twigs and leaves.<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> (3) Streamflow (SF)<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                        Water flows along with the leaves and twigs. Finally, all of the water flows are collected together and fall along the trunk to the surface.<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">           <u>Interception loss<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; tab-stops: 51.75pt;">                 <b><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">I=P-(TF-SF)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51.75pt; tab-stops: 51.75pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.3Factors affecting interception<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51.75pt; tab-stops: 51.75pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> (1) Storm (Nature and distribution of the storm.)<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> Drizzle-Before reaching to the ground, most of the water droplets are evaporated. When intensity and duration of precipitation are relatively high, lower interception is taken place.<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> (2)A plant (Canopy size, canopy density and leaf characteristics)<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> When canopy size is wide, more water droplets are intercepted, they took relatively more time to reach the ground so most of the water droplets are evaporated back to the atmosphere. When canopy density is high, amount of leaves and twigs in unit surface area is relatively high so more water droplets are intercepted and take relatively more time to reach the ground, therefore, most of the water droplets are evaporated during the process. When leaves are rough, they consist of less amount of wax, therefore, water droplets are relatively more tended to remain on the surface so most of the water droplets are intercepted and evaporated back to atmosphere. When leaves are smooth that means these leaves consists of relatively more wax so water droplets are relatively less tented to remain on the surface of the leaves, therefore, interception is limited and evaporation back to the atmosphere is relatively less.<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> (3) Season of the year (Vegetative growth and canopy characters)<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> Rainfall is relatively more intercepted than snowfall. Some of the trees are removed them all leaves in specific duration in each year and grow new leaves after duration. Therefore interception is relatively most limited during that time period and most of the water droplets are reached to ground. Less evaporation has occurred. <o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> (4) Prevailing wind<o:p></o:p></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> Interception of leaves and twigs are reduced by prevailing wind but the evaporation rate is relatively high.<o:p></o:p><br /> <br /> <br /></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Interception Introduction

2.1 What is the interception?                 Interception is natural or artificial covers intercept of falling water droplets toward t...

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Hydrology

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">2.1What is the hydrological cycle?<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">               The hydrological cycle is defined as the natural circulation of water from the oceans and land surface to the air, air to land, and back to the ocean under solar energy.  </span><br /> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-6CRor2nYUn8/VcEBanIthdI/AAAAAAAAAJM/PSS2ROxRHro/s1600/hydrologicalCycle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="196" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-6CRor2nYUn8/VcEBanIthdI/AAAAAAAAAJM/PSS2ROxRHro/s320/hydrologicalCycle.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">2.2Major components of the hydrological cycle<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Precipitation- Mechanism of water movement from the atmosphere to the earth's surface. Rain, sleet, Hail snow and dew are different forms of precipitation. The water which is evaporated from the earth's surface is condensed in the above atmosphere and returns to earth.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Evaporation/Evapotranspiration-The movement of water from the surface to the atmosphere that is changed from liquid to gas. Evaporation is taken place on an abiotic surfaces such as soil, streams, and lakes and leaves the surface. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Surface Water-After all losses water remain on the surface and pour towards the stream. With the saturation of soils, excess water creates floods. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Groundwater- Infiltrated water pour downwards until it meets impermeable rock. This water is trapped so flows laterally very slowly. After a long period of movement, water joins to the streams or oceans. Therefore groundwater table support to recharge streams.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">2.2Green water and blue water<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bGUkVmYM-GY/VcEBv6TCYlI/AAAAAAAAAJU/0fRNZjt_-0g/s1600/grrenWater.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="181" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bGUkVmYM-GY/VcEBv6TCYlI/AAAAAAAAAJU/0fRNZjt_-0g/s320/grrenWater.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">2.2.1Green water<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">             2/3 of precipitation is contributed to the production of biomass defined as green water. Green water has two components such as productive green water and non-productive green water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">              Productive green water is transpiration of plant surfaces. Non-productive green water is evaporation water from soil and interception.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; tab-stops: 141.75pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; tab-stops: 141.75pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">           <u>2.2.2Blue water<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; tab-stops: 141.75pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                                      1/3 of precipitation is considered blue water. Surface runoff, subsurface runoff, and baseflow are major components of blue water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">               <span style="color: red;">Both green water and blue water can be recycled through the hydrological cycle.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">2.2.3The difference between blue water and green water<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"> <tbody> <tr> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Green water<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Blue water<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Invisible water vapors to atmosphere.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Visible liquid water flow moving above and below the groundwater.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Green water cannot be reused.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Bluewater can be reused.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Green water isn’t available for downstream use.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 213.05pt;" valign="top" width="284"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Bluewater is available for downstream use.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">          <u>2.3 Greywater<o:p></o:p></u></span><br /> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-VyUPA2aBrrk/VcEDGbkGbzI/AAAAAAAAAJw/phjJA6Jp6Mw/s1600/blue%2Bwater%2Bgreen%2Bwater.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-VyUPA2aBrrk/VcEDGbkGbzI/AAAAAAAAAJw/phjJA6Jp6Mw/s320/blue%2Bwater%2Bgreen%2Bwater.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Greywater is wastewater discharge of household. Sinks, toilets, bathtubs, showers, hand washings, and kitchen wastewater are considered as greywater. Greywater also defined as black water. Greywater cannot be reused without proper treatments.<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:431.25pt; height:324pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\MADHUS~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg" o:title="grey water"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5DvHya2vHEw/VcEB8iqGuVI/AAAAAAAAAJc/ub46_vbB5Y0/s1600/planterBed.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="184" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5DvHya2vHEw/VcEB8iqGuVI/AAAAAAAAAJc/ub46_vbB5Y0/s320/planterBed.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 84.0pt;"> <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt;">      2.4<u>Relation between stream water and groundwater<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-r4OQkKmcUKU/VcECDwoBbHI/AAAAAAAAAJk/Sx2D4iggd-U/s1600/stream.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="93" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-r4OQkKmcUKU/VcECDwoBbHI/AAAAAAAAAJk/Sx2D4iggd-U/s320/stream.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">           (1)Humid area<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                         Groundwater recharges streams.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">           (2)Arid area<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">                            Streams recharge groundwater table after occurring of precipitation.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:312pt; height:309.75pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\MADHUS~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png" o:title="green water"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Hydrology

2.1What is the hydrological cycle?                The hydrological cycle is defined as the natural circulation of water from the oceans ...

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Hydrology Introduction

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><b>1.1 What is hydrology?</b><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">          Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><b>1.2 Factors affecting hydrology</b><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(1)Weather pattern<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(2)Physical factors-Topology, geology, and vegetation<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">(3)Human activities-urbanization<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt;"><b>1.3 Importance of hydrology</b><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 105.0pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">             </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To understand the process such as interception, infiltration, evaporation, and runoff.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">             </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To reorganize problems such as floods and droughts.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">             </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To weather forecasting.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">             </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To preparing of cropping calendar.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">             </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To soil conservation practices.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; page-break-after: avoid;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">  <b> </b><u><b>1.4.1 Weather</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; page-break-after: avoid;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ngDx9z-xkuM/VcD_F9fPHlI/AAAAAAAAAI8/c8DL7QnPnSg/s1600/weatther.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ngDx9z-xkuM/VcD_F9fPHlI/AAAAAAAAAI8/c8DL7QnPnSg/s1600/weatther.jpg" /></a></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; page-break-after: avoid;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; page-break-after: avoid;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 56.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt;">Weather is defined as the study of atmosphere for short duration of limited area.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="margin-left: 63.0pt; page-break-after: avoid;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">       <u><b>1.4.2 Climate</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="margin-left: 84.0pt; page-break-after: avoid;"> </div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;">                               <span style="font-size: 14pt;">Climate is defined as the study of the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a larger area.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 20.0pt;">   </span></b></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 20.0pt;"> 1.4.2 <u>The difference between weather and climate</u></span></b></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 20.0pt;"><u><br /></u></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> </div> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"> <tbody> <tr> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 182.25pt;" valign="top" width="243"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Weather<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.85pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Climate<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 182.25pt;" valign="top" width="243"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Weather is influenced by any of its predominant elements such as temperature and humidity.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.85pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Climate is the collective effect of all its elements.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 182.25pt;" valign="top" width="243"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">The weather changes very often.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.85pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Climate is permanent for long-time period.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 182.25pt;" valign="top" width="243"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">It is experienced over small areas of a country.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.85pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">It is experienced over a large area of the continent.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 182.25pt;" valign="top" width="243"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">A place can experience different types of weather conditions in an area.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.85pt;" valign="top" width="241"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">A place can experience only one type of climate.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 20.0pt;"><u><br /></u></span></b></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid; tab-stops: 67.5pt;"> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 20.0pt;"><u><br /></u></span></b></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Hydrology Introduction

1.1 What is hydrology?           Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and oth...

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(3) Nutrients

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">      <b>3.1 </b><u><b>Nutrient Cycles: Global Recycling</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">                          Nutrient cycles describe the flow of nutrients in and out of stores as a result of </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">biotic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> and abiotic processes. Without human interference, nutrient cycles are almost perfectly balanced. Nutrients are recycled by global cycles through the earth’s air, land, water, and living organisms. Nutrients are the elements that are essential to living, grow and reproduce of organisms.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-k4UdGwA21n4/Vb44XnFsvBI/AAAAAAAAAIc/QLy-ZNwA8pU/s1600/nutrientCycle.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-k4UdGwA21n4/Vb44XnFsvBI/AAAAAAAAAIc/QLy-ZNwA8pU/s320/nutrientCycle.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>3.2 Nutrients </b><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        All of the essential elements are by required for plant growth and completion of the plant life cycle from seed to seed. Some essential elements are needed large quantities and others in much smaller quantities. However, from a practical standpoint, three of the six essential macronutrients are most often "managed" by the addition of fertilizers to soils, while the others are most often found insufficient quantities in most soils and no soil amendments are required to supply adequate supplies.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">           </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">  <b>3.3 </b><u><b>Categories of nutrients </b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         Nutrients in soils are can be divided into two categories as macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are also can be divided into two categories as primary nutrients and secondary nutrients.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>3.2.1 </b><u><b>Macronutrients</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Macronutrients</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> are those elements and compounds needed in large quantities for a plant to grow.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3.2.1.1 <u>Primary nutrients<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   These major nutrients usually are lacking from the soil first because plants use large amounts for their growth and survival.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">  Ex: N, P and</span><span style="background: black; border: 1pt none black; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 0pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;"> </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-4vWFvM5L8Bc/Vb44ZYaeD3I/AAAAAAAAAIo/gKOz4V5PWH4/s1600/NPK.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="156" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-4vWFvM5L8Bc/Vb44ZYaeD3I/AAAAAAAAAIo/gKOz4V5PWH4/s320/NPK.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>3.2.1.2 </b><u><b>Secondary nutrients</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    There are usually enough of these nutrients in the soil so fertilization is not always needed.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Ex: Ca, Mg and S<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>3.2.2 </b><u><b>Micro nutrients</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">                    </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Micro-nutrients</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> are those elements essential for plant growth which are needed in only very small (micro) quantities and are sometimes called minor elements or trace elements.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 94.55pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn, and Cl<o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

(3) Nutrients

      3.1 Nutrient Cycles: Global Recycling                           Nutrient cycles describe the flow of nutrients in and out of sto...

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(2) Soil pH

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     What is soil pH?<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Soil pH is the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. pH more than 7 is alkalinity. pH lower than 7 is acidity. 7 is natural which is pure water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-C5Zg1op7OqY/Vb4xaSHayTI/AAAAAAAAAH8/Sx4b3bAtHbw/s1600/phRanges.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-C5Zg1op7OqY/Vb4xaSHayTI/AAAAAAAAAH8/Sx4b3bAtHbw/s1600/phRanges.gif" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Soil pH is one of the most important soil properties that affect the availability of nutrients. Nutrients are essential for the healthy growth of plants. They can be divided into three categories as macronutrients and micronutrients. Micronutrients are B, Cu, Fe, Cl, Mn, Mo and Zn. Macronutrients can be also divided into two categories as primary nutrients and secondary nutrients. Primary nutrients are N, P, and K. Secondary nutrients are Ca, Mg and S.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                       Secondary nutrients and micronutrients are less available at lower acidity. Macronutrients are less available for higher acidity. Therefore pH affects the growth of plants by the availability of nutrients at a certain pH. Some minerals are also toxic by increasing concentration in soil. Al and Mn are more available at highly acidic soil that is toxic to soils.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-025ayK0986k/Vb4xilaQrlI/AAAAAAAAAII/7VwBgmbAVkc/s1600/toxist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="244" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-025ayK0986k/Vb4xilaQrlI/AAAAAAAAAII/7VwBgmbAVkc/s320/toxist.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.2   </span><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Factors Affecting Soil pH<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1) Climate<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CaaDIxqXaOE/Vb4xkAEsSVI/AAAAAAAAAIQ/1InPGg6pxeo/s1600/soilPh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="185" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CaaDIxqXaOE/Vb4xkAEsSVI/AAAAAAAAAIQ/1InPGg6pxeo/s320/soilPh.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2) Parent material<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When parent material is acid rock, pH is acidity. When parent material is basic, pH is alkalinity.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3) Rainfall <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             Soils formed under high rainfall conditions are more acidic than those formed under arid (dry) conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4) Fertilizers<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fertilizers that are consist of ammonia and urea, develop the acidity in the soil. The decomposition of organic matter has also increased the acidity of the soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">2.3 </span><u style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Increasing the Soil pH</u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lime can be added to the soil to make it less acidic and also supplies calcium and magnesium for plants to use. Different soils will require a different amount of lime to adjust the soil pH value. The texture of the soil, organic matter content and the plants to be grown are all factors to consider in adjusting the pH value. For example, soils low in clay require less lime than soils high in clay to make the same pH change.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">– Lime also raises the pH to the desired range of 6.0 to 6.5. In this pH range, nutrients are more readily available to plants, and microbial populations in the soil increase<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.3.1  Function of limes<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Toxicities include Al is reduced. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil physical conditions are improved.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Microbial activities are stimulated. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The availability of essential nutrients is improved.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> </div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ca and Mg are supplied for plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

(2) Soil pH

     What is soil pH?                                   Soil pH is the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. pH more than 7 is alkalinit...

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