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Compost as a Healthy Fertilizer

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Title: Compost as a Healthy Fertilizer
Author: natural green
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Composting is produced as the result of decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen under controlled c...

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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Composting</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>is
produced as the result of decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms in
the presence of oxygen under controlled conditions.</b> Compost has become a
part of sustainable agriculture due to its ability to improve soil properties
as well as yield. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sources</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Biodegradable organics such as
kitchen waste, garden pawn, organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW). Proper
C: N ration must be maintained to enhance the microbial activities. Ideal C: N
ratio for composting is 25:1. Carbon and nitrogen rich materials are mixed
together to balance the C: N ratio .Hay, wood ashes, saw dust and dried leaves
are added as the carbon sources.  Weeds,
green manure such as <i>Grilicidia sepium, </i>fresh
hay, and cow dung and fish emulsions can be added as nitrogen sources. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Shredding or branding</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>materials</b>:
Lager particles can be shredded into small particles which can be easily
handled. It increases the available surface area for microorganisms. So
duration of compost processing is reduced. 
Air can move easily through the pile. It helps to distribute the heat
uniformly throughout the pile. It reduces land requirement for compost pile. It
can be more easily turned for aeration. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Compost
processing is done through three steps such as mesophilic, thermophilic and cooling
and maturation phase. These three steps are dominated by different microbial
communities. The temperature of the compost pile is related to the activity of
the microorganisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mesophilic</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: This is the initial step of
composting. Rapidly degradable organic matter I degraded by mesophilic
bacteria. Their activity is inhibited above 40◦C. Human and plant pathogens are
destroyed above 55◦C. many microbes cannot survive above 60◦C. Composting also
slow down at higher temperature. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thermophilic</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The second step of composting takes
place at higher temperature. These high temperature acts as the accelerating
factor for decomposing high strength organics such as protein, cellulose and
lignocellulose. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cooling and maturation phase</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: When organic matter is becoming
limited, temperature of the compost file is gradually reduced. Mesophilic
bacteria break down the remaining organic matter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Physiochemical factor affecting the
efficiency of the composting</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: <b>Oxygen</b> is
consumed in large quantity particularly in the initial stage by microorganisms.
Oxygen can be provided through aeration. Turning of material or embedded
propagated pipes provides oxygen to the composting pile.The frequency of
turning and level of aeration is governed by the type of material and present
moisture content. Turning helps to bring material of outside the pile into
center and decomposes the all of the materials in the pile.  Greater aeration accelerates the initial stage
of composting and reduces the duration of compost processing. If suddenly
oxygen supply of the pile is vanished, pile is turned into anaerobic. It
produced odiferous ammonia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                 <b>Temperature</b> is another important factor
that regulates the composting. Composting has two distinct temperature ranges.
Mesophilic is up to 40◦C and thermophilic above 40◦C. Turning and heating
prevents the overheating of the pile due to the microbial activities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                 Microorganisms
need N, P and K as their <b>primary
nutrients</b>. But in the composting C and N are taken into consideration.
Ideal C: N ratio is 25:1. Low C: N ratio slows down the composting process.
High C: N ratio cause unpleasant odor due to the release of excess nitrogen as
ammonia. Therefore C: N ratio must be maintained as earlier discussed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                 <b>pH</b> of the composting pile varies with
decomposition byproducts at each step. As result of acid accumulation, pH of
mesophilic stage is reduced. Decomposition of acids release ammonia which
increase the pH of composting. pH become neutral at final stage of composting. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                 <b>Moisture</b> is important for the metabolic
activities of microorganisms.  40-65% of
moisture content must be maintained. Above 65% causes anaerobic conditions
because water displaces the gas in the pores of the pile. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Microorganisms</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: <b>Aerobic respiratory bacteria</b> are mainly employed in composting.
Millions of them can be found in 1g of compost. They are diverse nutritionally group.
They oxidized organic matter to ATP synthesis. These oxidation releases larges
amount of heat. They are active during mesophilic stage. Most are died above
60◦ C and most of remaining forms endospores. They need oxygen level above 5%. <b>Actinomycetes</b> degrade the high strength
organic matter such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, starch and protein. They
inhabit in the areas with moderate temperature in the compost pile. <b>Fungi</b> also are capable of breakdown of
high strength organic matter as actionmycetes. They can be found outside of
compost pile. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Macroorganisms</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: In addition to microorganisms,
large animals also support to compost processing. Larger animals including
mites, millipedes, spider, flies and ants involve in the last stage of the
composting. They help to mixing, chewing and digesting organic matter. They
also shred the organic matter into small particles. Thereby organic matter can
be easily digested by microorganisms. Their extra provides the nutrients for
microorganisms in the compost pile. Protozoan can be found in the water droplet
in the compost pile. They act as predatory organisms on bacteria. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Benefits of composts</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: 
Farmers tends to apply compost as fertilizer, soil conditioner and
mulch.  Compost as fertilizer adds
nutrients to soil. Slow decomposition of humus releases nutrient into soil.
Quality and quantity of nutrient varies greatly with compost according to their
initial sources. Compost as mulch is applied to the surface of soil. It
protects the moisture content without allowing them to evaporation. It also
suppresses the growth of weed which affects the agricultural crops. Compost as conditioner
improves physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Psychical properties</b>: Organic matter in the humus helps to bind the
soil particles into aggregates. It increases the soil porosity which enhances
the soil aeration. So plant root have ability take enough oxygen from the
soil.  High porosity of soil increases
infiltration. Thereby the surface runoff is reduced. It reduces soil bulk
density. As soil particles binding together, it reduces the soil erosion due to
the rain.  Due to the dark color of the
humus, soil can absorbed more heat and maintain soil temperature and avoid
temperature fluctuations. Thereby stable soil temperature encourages the seed
germination.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chemical properties</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Compost acts as a buffer agent and neutralizes
variation in pH and salinity. Microorganisms in the humus provide the plant
growth promoting substance such as vitamins and hormones. In addition to macronutrients
such as N, P and K compost provides micronutrients. Compost provides more ion
exchange sites to the soil in the purpose of negatively charged nutrient biding.
Thereby it enhances the ion exchange capacity of soil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biological properties: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">high temperature<b> </b>that is generated by humus is able to kill pathogenic
microorganisms. Humus encourages the growth of earth worms and other beneficial
soil microorganisms. Predatory microorganisms such as protozoan are killed by
microorganisms inhabit in the humus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Environmental benefits</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Compost is produced from organic
matter which is disposed as waste in most cases. So as a waste organic matter
cause serve environmental problems. Unregulated releasing of organic waste
cause aquatic pollution, eutrophication and degrading biodiversity. So local
governments tend to collect the solid waste from their responsible area and
separate the organic waste and process them into compost. So compost protects
the environmental quality. It reduces the land requirement for disposal solid
waste. It prevents the odor due to the anaerobic digestion, pathogens and pest
problems. Quality of groundwater and surface water is preserved. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Economic benefits</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Compost as organic fertilizer, it
has a good price in the market. Rural people can process the composting plant
individually in their home garden. They can apply compost for their
agricultural crops while excess can be sold. Even in urban areas, compost can
be produced by using compost bins. The vegetable and fruits that are grown using
organic fertilizer are sold at higher prices compare to the vegetable and
fruits grown using chemical fertilizers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages of composting</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Composting is slow releasing
fertilizer of nutrients into the soil. So it is less suitable for agricultural
lands that are growing annual crops. Humus releases nutrients even after cut
off harvesting within fallow period. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Quality and quantity of nutrients
varies greatly with compost. So it cannot be ensured that compost lonely act as
perfect fertilizer and fulfill the all of the nutrient requirements. Chemical
fertilizers release large quantity of nutrients that can be directly and
readily absorbed by plants. But humus is needed to be further decomposed to
release nutrients. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In most countries, organic fraction
of municipal solid waste is used to produce compost. But even the organic waste
contains loads of toxic materials which are unable to remove before or after
processing like large materials such as polythene, Aluminum cans and broken
glasses. Therefore addition of toxic substances including   heavy metals into agricultural soil cannot
be avoided in the application of compost that is produced from MSW.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Compost as a Healthy Fertilizer

Composting is produced as the result of decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen under controlled c...

Methylotrophy, Methanogenisis and Carbon Cycle

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Title: Methylotrophy, Methanogenisis and Carbon Cycle
Author: natural green
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Methylotrophy : There are some microorganisms those use methyl compounds as their substrate. These methyl compounds are oxidized into carbo...

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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Methylotrophy</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: There are some microorganisms those
use methyl compounds as their substrate. These methyl compounds are oxidized
into carbon dioxide. They oxidize these methyl compounds to take electron to
run electron transport chain to synthesis ATP. The methyl compounds include
methane, methyl ammine and methanol. <i>Methaylomonas</i>
and <i>Methaylococcus</i> are the example
for methyalotrophs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Methanogens</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It refers to as the generation of
methane. Only few Arches including <i>Methanomonas</i>
and <i>Methanococcus</i> are capable of
generating methane. Eukarya, bacteria and other Archea are unable to generate
methane.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Archea those live in
anaerobic environments including ruminant of rumen, deep layer of soil, mud,
bottom of waste dump site and intestine perform anaerobic respiration for their
ATP synthesis. They use hydrogen as their substrate. They oxidize hydrogen into
photon. This oxidation gives electron to run electron transport chain. They use
the photon for their hydrogen acceptor in the electron transport chain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       As they live in
anaerobic environment, they have to use non oxygen terminal electron acceptors.
So they use methyl compound including methanol, methyl amine and carbon
dioxide. They reduce them into methane. Nearly 20% of world methane production
is associated with the cattle farm areas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Methane is
combustible gas which causes regular exploitation in the dump sites. It is also
responsible for the greenhouse gas effects which cause global warming. Methane
is used as an alternative fuel for fossil fuel in the world. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                               <b><u>Methanogens reduce the methyl compounds</u></b>
into methane. So they cannot be labeled as methyltophs because <b><u>methylotrophs oxidize the methyl
compounds</u></b> into carbon dioxide. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 22.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Carbon cycle:</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">In anaerobic enmvirimnets, hyrdogen is avilbe as a
result of fermentaion. Carban dioxide is availbe as byprodct of anaerobic
repsiration. Methogen use these hyrogen as their oxidizable susbtrate and
carbon dioxide as their terminal elctron acceptor. They produce methane. These
metahne is used as the susbtate by methylotrophs. They oxidize them into carban
dioxide. These carbon dioxide is fixed into organic compund by autrphs. In
addtion to ayutrophs, methogens also use these carban dioxide as their terminal
elctron aceptor and reduce them into methane. The organic matter is oxidized
compleltly into caban dioxide by anerobic and aerobic respiratory bacteria. The
organic matter is oxidized partially into small organics including alcohol,
acids and aldehydes by fermentaitve bacteria under anaerobic conditions.  Occasionaly fermentative bacertia also
complety oxidize organic matter into carbon dioxides. Those small oragincs are
further oxidied into carbon dioxode by aerobic or anerobic repsiratory
bacteria. </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>

Methylotrophy, Methanogenisis and Carbon Cycle

Methylotrophy : There are some microorganisms those use methyl compounds as their substrate. These methyl compounds are oxidized into carbo...

Construction of Artificial Wetland for Wastewater Treatment

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Title: Construction of Artificial Wetland for Wastewater Treatment
Author: natural green
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Wastewater that are produced by industries are needed to treat in a proper manner before discharge into public sewer or r...

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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Wastewater that are produced
by industries are needed to treat in a proper manner before discharge into
public sewer or receiving water bodies because industrial wastewater contain
lots of harmful chemicals and pathogens. International and national standards
must be followed at the discharge point of industries into receiving water
bodies or public sewer. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Untreated
wastewater or effluent cause severe environmental, social and economic problems
when they are directly discharged without pretreatment. The release of wastewater
without pretreatment stresses the public sewers. Untreated wastewater contain
high pollution load which upset the biological processes. It exceeds the
capacity of aerobic repertory microorganisms which involve in the degradation
of organic matter in the aeration tank. It has to be given more retention time
to reduce the undesirable qualities of the wastewater but it increases the cost
of the treatment. It needs storage tank with high capacity which makes more
land requirements to handle large wastewater volumes. Therefore pretreatment of
industrial wastewater is essential before the discharge into public sewers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Small
scale industries and some of large scale industries tend to discharge their
wastewater without treatment into receiving water bodies. These wastewater are
able contaminate the ground water table which threats health of human. Release
of untreated wastewater into surface drinking water sources discharge
considerable amount of toxic metals and dyes which affects the ecosystems and
human health. Industrial wastewaters that bring sewage as well contain loads of
phosphate and nitrate which are capable of accelerating the growth of algae. With
time, higher growth of the algae makes the aquatic ecosystem completely die. Some
algal species are capable of producing harmful substances that are toxic to
animals and human.  This kind of algal
growth is known as <b>harmful algal broom</b>.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Most industries have a combined system for process both industrial
wastewater and sewage wastewater which is generated by the sanitation
activities of workers in the factories due to the cost effectiveness.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggWWQ1QTCg_KEhAZPdo-4g6bOIwcwmoNqh5evGAJva3pqu43wapJ_OOMm4M0sswuuVoQzSgso1xXfOLZF4dIZic0dm2B-tcVzfa8zrRJ0nMsRaF4S5DqlolRCFB1g7rXNPAUvTo9-5MbnG/s1600/Capture.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggWWQ1QTCg_KEhAZPdo-4g6bOIwcwmoNqh5evGAJva3pqu43wapJ_OOMm4M0sswuuVoQzSgso1xXfOLZF4dIZic0dm2B-tcVzfa8zrRJ0nMsRaF4S5DqlolRCFB1g7rXNPAUvTo9-5MbnG/s640/Capture.PNG" width="635" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wastewater is collected from the all over the industry and
passed through a metallic <b>bar screen</b>.
It retains the large particles such as straws, glass pieces and sanitary
napkins that can damage the pumps and other equipment in the treatment plant. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Oil
from incoming wastewater is removed in the oil separation tank. <b>API (American Petroleum Institute)
separators</b> can be used for better efficient oil separation. Here specific
gravity difference between oil and wastewater is the main principle behind the
separation. Oil is collected form the surface. Sediment that is settled down at
the bottom of the tank is directed to the central sludge management facilities.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Then
wastewater is transferred to <b>flow
equalization tank</b>. As the production cycle of industries varies, water is
stored for certain period of time in the flow equalization tank. It produces
stable wastewater for downstream process. Temperature of the wastewater is
reduced by giving enough retention</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">time in this tank. The variation of the concentration of
wastewater throughout the whole tank is avoided by continuous mixing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Coagulant
agents such as lime, alum, ferrous Sulfate and ferric Sulfate are added to
remove the dissolved solid matter. After addition of coagulant agent, water is rapidy
mixed to disperse the coagulant throughout all of the water in the <b>coagulation tank</b>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Then
water is transferred into <b>flocculation
tank</b>. Here water is gently mixed to allow</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">flocs to form. These flocs are removed by using a <b>sedimentation tank</b>. Chemical flocs are
settled down under gravity. They are collected from the bottom of the tank and
send for central sludge management facilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Wastewater
is passed into a <b>floatation tank</b> to
remove solid particle from the water. It helps to remove very tiny light
particles from the water. Here a gas (air bubbles) is introduced and to form
scum which is collected from the surface. The sediments that are collected at
the bottom are directed to the central sludge management facilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           The
biodegradable organic matter in the wastewater is removed by using <b>aeration tank</b>. Here aerobic respiratory
microorganisms are employed under aeration. They oxidize organic matter
completely into carbon dioxide and water without leaving any residues. External
nutrient sources such as canteen waste or cow dung can be added to enhance the
efficiency of the microorganisms. Aerobic respiratory microorganisms are also
added externally to maintain high <b>F/M
(Food to Microorganisms) ratio</b> because when microorganisms are higher than
the available food, they tend to form flocs via attaching to each other.  These biological flogs are removed by using
another settling tank. Retention time of wastewater is 4-8 hours in the
aeration tank. The amount of sediments can be reduced by extending the
retention time from 1-2 days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Then
wastewater is transferred to secondary clarifier or settling tank. Here
biological flocs are settled down under gravity. They are collected from
bottom. A portion of sediment is returned back to the aeration tank to as <b>activated sludge </b>to enhance the
treatment of incoming wastewater. Remaining portion is disposed as sludge. It
can be degraded completely in an anaerobic digester. Unoxidized sludge mostly
includes high strength organics such as lignin and cellulose which is unable to
degrade by aerobic respiratory bacteria.  Anaerobic digestion of organic matter produces
methane which combustible gas which can be used as the alternative fuel for
fossil fuel. This sludge also can be send to central sludge treatment
facilities to treat with the sludge which is generated by other process.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           After
biological treatment of wastewater, it is transferred to another tank for <b>disinfection</b>. Disinfection is used to
kill disease cause microorganisms. Chlorine treatment, ozonation and UV
treatments are the available method for disinfection. Although use of chlorine
is cost effective, excess amount of chlorine produce disinfection by products
(DBP) which are carcinogen chemicals. Both UV and ozonation do not leave any
chemical residue. But ozonation require highly specialized equipment to produce
ozone and contact with water. So UV treatment is relatively cost effective and
environmental safe. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">

</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           These
levels of treatment is not enough to release wastewater into public sewers or
receiving water bodies because wastewater still contains non degraded organic
matter and excess nutrient such as phosphate and nitrate. They can be removed
by using different chemical, physical and biological methods. But it has to be
combined several method to achieve better tertiary treatment. It is expensive
and labor intensive. Therefore <b>construction
of artificial wetland </b>solves these problems and gives relatively efficient
and environmentally friendly tertiary treatment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wetland system consists mainly there components such as
surface substrate,</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">macrophytes
and microbial communities. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         
A gavel layer is applied as the top layer of surface substrate. Beneath
the gavel layer a coarse media is applied.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        
 Rooted emergent macrophytes such
as cattle tails are planted in the coarse media. They produce aerial stem with
underground extensive fibrous root system.  These the macrophytes support the growth of
microbial communities via association with their root systems and remove
certain pollutants from the water. The plants uptake the excess nutrient which
is able accelerates their growth from the wastewater. Some plants are capable
of absorbing toxic metal of the water such as <b><i>Ipomoea aquatic</i></b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       
The microorganisms help to further removal of organics. They plays
important role for the removal of excess nutrients. Ammonium ions are removed
from the wastewater by denitrification. Oxygen leaks from the rhizomes into the
nearby waster where the aerated zone is located. In aerated zones, ammonium
ions are oxidized into nitrite by <b><i>Nitrosomonas</i></b> then nitrite is further
oxidized intro nitrate by <b><i>Nitrobactor.  </i></b>Then these nitrates are reduced into
nitrogen gas which expels from water into the atmosphere by <b><i>Thiobacillus
dentrificans </i></b>in the anaerobic zone.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">                           </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">In
addition above biological process, wetland use physical and chemical methods to
remove the pollutants from the wastewater. Main physical processes are
sedimentation and filtration. Above gavel and coarse media of the wetland traps
the remaining sediment in the incoming wastewater through straining. Volatile
organic compounds (VOC) such as phenolic compounds which are resistant to
remove during primary and secondary treatment are subjected to volatilization.
Those VOCs diffuses from the wastewater from atmosphere due to the action of
the photo energy. Chemical process includes the sorption, redox reactions,
chemical precipitation and hydrolysis.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Construction of Artificial Wetland for Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater that are produced by industries are needed to treat in a proper manner before discharge into public sewer or r...

Microbiological Analysis of Potable Drinking Water

natural green

Link Author

Title: Microbiological Analysis of Potable Drinking Water
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Drinking water sources can be accidently contaminated by human fecal pollution. But release of small quantity of fecal matter does not ...

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwh-9Dv2ExYRITS5L41ZCtvovZ-cA4BGpDkF8MjosSFj3EG4jIMWOkN3h7oHloQgkJ6UwCXI2jMEevpG7p_HYAxHr-m9fDBXG9QhP19dcAmTyAMwvD3uYAA-pv4t52gtOYI11p7z-5y0y6/s1600/img1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="384" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwh-9Dv2ExYRITS5L41ZCtvovZ-cA4BGpDkF8MjosSFj3EG4jIMWOkN3h7oHloQgkJ6UwCXI2jMEevpG7p_HYAxHr-m9fDBXG9QhP19dcAmTyAMwvD3uYAA-pv4t52gtOYI11p7z-5y0y6/s640/img1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Drinking water sources can be accidently contaminated by human
fecal pollution. But release of small quantity of fecal matter does not cause
serious health problems because it is highly diluted within the natural water
bodies. If water bodies are once fecal polluted, it contains pathogens of fecal
origins.  This pathogen may include protozoan
cysts, nematodes larvae, nematode eggs, viruses, bacteria and fungi. But it is
difficult to test for each and every above organism so test for indicator
organisms such as tests for <i>E coli</i> is
done. It is an intestinal microorganism that lives in human and most animal
bodies. <i>E coli</i> releases through the
fecal matter into aquatic water bodies. They do not die as soon as they release
from the human body. But they cannot survive for many days in the water due to
low nutrient availability. It is assumed that fecal origin pathogens also have
similar duration of survival within aquatic water bodies.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">According to WHO, drinking water
cannot contain at least one E coli. If drinking water contain at least one E
coli, it is not suitable for human consumption.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      Testing
for E <i>coli</i> is cost effective and time
saving. If <i>E coli</i> are present, it
indicated that there is high probability of presence of fecal origin pathogens.
But even if direct testing for <i>E coli</i>
is cost because electricity has to be applied to inoculate the microorganisms
in the water sample at high temperatures 
in order to test for <i>E coli</i>.
So initially testing for coliform is done. Coliform is a group of bacteria that
are capable of fermentation lactose and producing acids and gas. Coliforms are
gram negative and rod shaped bacteria. <i>E
coli</i> are also one of the members of coliform. If the result of coliform
test is negative, there is no need of further testing. Therefore water can be
released for human consumption. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                Testing for <i>E coli</i> is done in three steps such as
presumptive test, coliform test and conform test. In presumptive test, MaConkey
broth is used the culture media. MaConkey broth media acts as the selective and
differentiate medium for isolation of gram negative lactose fermentative
bacteria.  It is comprised of lactose as
the carbon source, peptone as the nitrogen and other nutrient source, bile
salt, pH indicator and NaCl. Bile broth is added to suppress the growth of gram
positive bacteria. Bromo cresol purple or neutral red is added as the pH
indicator to observe to acid production of bacteria. If Bromo cresol purple is
added, it changes its color as yellow due to the acid production. If neutral
red is added as the pH indicator, it changes it color as dark red due to the
acid production. NaCl is added to t maintain the osmotic balance of the medium.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Here five test tubes are
prepared with 9 mL of double strength MaConkey broth and 1ml of water sample to
prepare 10</span><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;">◦ </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">series.</span><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then another five test tubes are prepared with 9mL of single strength MaConkey
broth and 1ml of water sample to prepare 10^-1 series. 1mL of water sample is
taken into another test tube containing 9mL of peptone to dilute water to 10^-1.
Then from that test tube 1mL is added to five test tubes filled with 9mL of single
strength MaConkey broth to prepare 10^-2 series. These test tube series are
inoculated at 37◦C for 24-48 hours. Color change due to the acid production and
gas collected in the Durham tube are taken as the positive result of this test.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If the
result of presumptive test is negative, there is no need of further testing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> It indicated that there is no coliform that
means there are no E coli. If results are positive, it indicates the presence
of coliform. So further testing is needed to confirm whether presence or
absence of coli.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">                       </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">The test tubes those
shows positive results are used to inoculate in the conform test. Two methods
are available such as BGLB broth or EMBA. BGLB broth means brilliant green
lactose bile broth. Here lactose also is added as carbon source for bacterial
fermentation. Brilliant green dye suppress the growth some selective gram
negative bacteria. Bile suppresses the growth of gram positive bacteria. One
set of BGLB broth containing test tube are inoculated at 37◦ C for total
coliform. Total coliform contain both environmental coliform and fecal
coliform. Another set of BGLB broth containing test tube are inoculated at 44◦
C for fecal coliform. Gas production in the Durham tube is taken as the
positive results in this test.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Plate containing EMBA
agar is used to conform the presence of <i>E
coli</i>. Inoculum from the test tubes that shows positive results are taken
into plates for inoculate at 37◦C for 24-48 hours. EMBA means Eosin Methylene
Blue Agar.</span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Eosin Methylene Blue dyes suppresses the growth
of gram positive bacteria. Agar is added as the solidifying agent. Lactose is
added as the carbon source for bacterial fermentation. It gives characteristic
green color with metallic sheen if strong acid producers are present such as <i>E coli</i>. It gives pink colored colonies
if weak acid producers are present such as <i>Enterobacto</i>r.
Non lactose fermentative does not give any color.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> If results from conform test is negative,
there is no fecal coliform. So water can be released for human consumption. But
if results are positive, further testing is needed because In addition to <i>E coli, Enterobacto</i>r also shows positive
results for confirm test.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">                          </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Then complete test is
done to confirm exactly presence of </span><i style="font-size: 14pt;">E
coli</i><span style="font-size: 14pt;">. IMViC tests are done. IMViC means Indol Methylene red VP Citrate
tests. </span><i style="font-size: 14pt;">E coli</i><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> give positive results
for Indol and Methylene test. In Indol test, only E coli is able to digeste tryptone
because only </span><i style="font-size: 14pt;">E coli </i><span style="font-size: 14pt;">tryptonase enzyme
to form Indol ring. As Indol ring cannot be observed due to the colorless,
knovas reagent is added. If Indol ring is present, it appears in red in color. </span><i style="font-size: 14pt;">Enterobactor</i><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> gives positive results for VP
and Citrate tests. If the results of complete test are also positive, it
indicated that presence of </span><i style="font-size: 14pt;">E coli</i><span style="font-size: 14pt;">. So
water cannot be released for human consumption due to the possibility of
presence of fecal origin pathogens.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Microbiological Analysis of Potable Drinking Water

Drinking water sources can be accidently contaminated by human fecal pollution. But release of small quantity of fecal matter does not ...

Enumeration Techniques of Bacteria in Microbiology

Natural green

Link Author

Title: Enumeration Techniques of Bacteria in Microbiology
Author: Natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Enumeration is the estimation of the number bacteria in a sample such as water sample or food sample . Enumeration te...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    Enumeration is the
estimation of the number bacteria in a sample such as water sample or food
sample</span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enumeration techniques help to
determine the growth rate and death rate of bacteria</span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It gives the information about the degree of contamination of
pathogenic microorganisms in MPN test. </span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Direct methods and indirect methods
used for enumeration. Direct enumeration methods include pour plat, spread
plate, cell chamber and florescent dyes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        Pour
plate method uses 1mL of inoculum from the samples. 15mL of molten agar at 45◦ C
and inoculum are added to plate and mixed by rotating it on the bench top. It
is inoculated for 24-48 hours at 35◦ C. Bacterial colonies can be found both on
surface and inside of the agar medium. These bacterial colonies are used to
estimate number of bacteria in the initial sample. Pour plate methods help to
isolate the microorganisms in the sample to isolate based on the oxygen availability.
Aerobic respiratory bacteria can be found on the surface of agar.
Microaerophilic bacteria can be found the inside of the agar. Anaerobic bacteria
can be found at bottom of the agar. Bit pour plate method have some disadvantages
too. The aerobic respiratory bacteria those are trapped inside the agar cannot survive.
Heat sensitive bacteria may kill due to the high temperature of melting agar.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       </span><br />
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Spread
plate method use relatively lower size of inoculum such as 0.1ml from sample compare
to the pour plate method. ImL of inoculum form the water sample is transferred to
an agar plate. Then sterilized glass spreader is used to spread the inoculum
over the surface of agar. It is also inoculated for 24-48 hours at 35◦ C.
Bacterial colonies only grow on the surface of agar in spread plate method. If
it is inoculated under aerobic conditions, aerobic respiratory bacteria can be
isolated and estimated. If it is inoculated under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic
respiratory bacteria can be isolated and estimated.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              But
both pour plate method and spread plate method do not give accurate results because
these artificial cultural media are unable to provide extreme environmental conditions
and nutrients. So these enumeration techniques do not estimate the accurate number
in the samples. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              In
above both pour plate method and spread plate method, colony forming units
(CFU) are taken into considered to estimate the number bacteria present in the initial
sample. Colony forming units are the single microorganisms that are able to
from visible single colony. So it is assumed that all colonies in the plates
are made by single bacterium cell. Only plates with colony in-between 30-300
are counted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">            A
dilution series is prepared in both methods as follows. Inoculum from the
initial sample is transferred into test tube with 9mL of broth by using sterilized
pipette. Its concentration is 10^-1. Then 1mL of first dilution is added to
another into test tube with 9mL of broth by using another sterilized pipette.</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Its
concentration is 10^-2</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. Then 1mL of second dilution is added to
another into test tube with 9mL of broth by using another new sterilized pipette.
Its concentration is 10^-3</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. Then 1mL of third dilution is transferred to
another into test tube with 9mL of broth by using another sterilized pipette.
Its concentration is 10^-4.. Then 1mL of forth dilution is added to another
into test tube with 9mL of broth by using another sterilized pipette. Its
concentration <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 18.6667px;">is 10^-5.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 18.6667px;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Streak plate method cannot be used for enumeration because
the volume of loomful is known.                                        <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Cell
chamber method uses a petrioff to estimate number of bacteria. It is able to
count the bacteria directly within the squares of petrioff slide and estimate according
to the initial volume.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Fluroscent
dye method is used to estimate the total microorganisms in samples such as soil
and water. It gives accurate estimation of both living and dead bacteria. Acridine
dye is applied to observe and estimate the bacteria.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     MPN
test and turbidity are the indirect methods of enumeration. In turbidly technique,
turbidity of sample is measured and transferred this measurement into cell
number. A plate series is prepared and measured the turbidity of them.  Standard curve is plotted and takes the
number of bacterial cell in the initial sample aid in the graph.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     A
series of dilution is prepared for MPN test. It is used in the estimate of
number <i>E coli</i> present in fecal contaminated
water sample. Inoculum of initial water sample is transferred as 1mL, 0.1mL and
0.01mL into spate test tube containing broth culture. Five replications for
each dilution are made to increase accuracy. Every tube that shows growth is
taken as the positive results. It may be acid production and gas collection in Durham
tube. Ratio between positive results of each dilution is taken as MPN
ratio.  Then number of bacteria in the initial
water sample is taken from a MPN table which is made according to various other
testing and based on statistics by using MPN ratio.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Enumeration Techniques of Bacteria in Microbiology

Enumeration is the estimation of the number bacteria in a sample such as water sample or food sample . Enumeration te...

Nitrogen Cycle in Microbiology

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Title: Nitrogen Cycle in Microbiology
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Nitrogen is the most available gas in the atmosphere. It accounts roughly for 70% atmosphere. Nitrogen is found as nitrogen gas which i...

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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nitrogen is the most available gas in the atmosphere. It
accounts roughly for 70% atmosphere. Nitrogen is found as nitrogen gas which is
inert form. So it needs large amount of energy to break the bond between the two
nitrogen atoms. This atmospheric nitrogen fix into nitrate via two methods such
as atmospheric fixation and biological fixation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       In
<b>atmospheric fixation of nitrogen</b>, lighting
releases a considerable amount of energy that is enough for the breakdown of
the bond of nitrogen gas. Then nitrogen atoms react with water in the rain and
convert into nitrate ions. These nitrate ions reach to the soil through the
rain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Certain
bacteria those inhibit in the soil involve in the <b>biological fixation of nitrogen </b>into ammonium ions. Some nitrogen
fixing bacteria are free living. Ex: <i>Azotobactor</i>,
<i>Bacillus polymyxa</i>. Other nitrogen
fixing bacteria form symbiotic relationship with legume plants. Ex: <i>Rhizobium</i> sp. They fix atmospheric
nitrogen into nodes on the roots of legume plant. Those nitrogen are available
to the plant when roots are dead or they add nitrogen directly when legume
plant are buried or grown as an intercrop. Cyanobacteria are another group that
is capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. They also form symbiotic
relationship with roots of certain plant such as <i>Cycad</i>,<i> Azolla</i> and
liverworts. Among them, <i>Anabena-Azolla</i>
relationship is more efficient than legume plants in nitrogen fixation so
farmers use <i>Anabena-Azolla</i> in their
rice paddies in order to increase their yield.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       <b>Decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter</b>
releases ammonium ion to the soil. Organic matter contains protein those are
rich in ammonium compounds.  Leaf litter,
root decomposition and animal excretions make the soil fertile via release of
ammonium. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              Then
ammonium ions in the soil are used as the substrate by ammonium oxidizing
bacteria such as <b><i>Nitrosomonas</i></b><i> </i>in the
presence of oxygen. They oxidize this ammonium into nitrite ions. They do this
oxidation to take electron to run the electron transport chain to ATP
syntheses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              Those
nitrite ions are used as substrate by nitrite oxidizing bacteria such as <b><i>Nitrobactor
</i>i</b>n the presence of oxygen. They oxidize nitrite into nitrate which the
preferable form of plant to be absorbed. They do this oxidation to take
electron to</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">run the
electron transport chain to synthesis ATP. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           
 The oxidation or conversion of
ammonium ions into nitrate ions refer to as the <b>nitrification</b>. Nitrification helps to increase the soil fertility. Aeration
is the only accelerating factor that is responsible for the nitrification.
Tilling helps to aeration of the soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              In
the absence of oxygen, certain facultative anaerobic microorganisms in the soil
such <b><i>Thiobacillus
dentrificans</i></b> use these nitrate ions as terminal electron acceptor in
their anaerobic respiration. They reduce nitrite into nitrogen gas which expel
from the soil into atmosphere. The process that convert nitrate into nitrogen
gas is called as <b>denitrification</b>.
Denitrification makes the soil infertile. But as <i>Thiobacillus dentrificans</i> is facultative anaerobe, they shift into
aerobic respiration when soil is aerated. Therefore aeration of soil helps to
stop the denitrification of soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Nitrogen Cycle in Microbiology

Nitrogen is the most available gas in the atmosphere. It accounts roughly for 70% atmosphere. Nitrogen is found as nitrogen gas which i...

Bio Leaching of Metal Ions Form Low Grade Metal Depositions

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Title: Bio Leaching of Metal Ions Form Low Grade Metal Depositions
Author: natural green
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There are metal depositions in the world with low concentrations so they refer to as low grade metal depo...

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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">  There are metal
depositions in the world with low concentrations so they refer to as <b>low grade metal depositions</b>. Therefore
it is non-effective to extract metal ions by using chemical extractions.
Therefore metal ions from low grade depositions are extracted by using
metabolic activates of bacteria.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Copper extraction</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Low grade Copper depositions are
known as low grade copper ore. Copper is available as Covelite (CuS). Covelite
that is extracted from the underground deposition are pilled as heap.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is added to the top the heap.  Usually Covelite are associated with pyrite
(Fe2S).  Pyrite plays a major role of
copper extraction process. Sulfur oxidizing bacteria such as <i>Thiobacillus thioxidans</i> use sulfide of
the pyrite (Fe2S) as their substrate for their ATP synthesis. They oxidize
sulfide into sulfate. This reaction releases ferrous ion from the mineral. Then
these ferrous ion is used the substrate by <i>Acidothiobacillus
thioxidans</i>. They oxidize ferrous ion into ferric ion. These ferric ions are
collected and added to the top of heap. These ferric ions undergo a redox
reaction with Covelite. Ferric is reduced back into ferrous. Sulfide of Covelite
is oxidized into sulfate. These reaction releases cupric ion. A scarab metal is
put to the tank to reduce the cupric ion into copper metal. Copper metal can be
collected from the bottom of the tank. Ferrous ions are again oxidized into
ferric by iron oxidizing bacteria.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Uranium extraction</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: In the environment, uranium
depositions are found in the form of Uraninite (UO2) which water insoluble. Uraninite
depositions are piled into heap.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pyrite also plays important role in Uranium extraction.
Sulfur oxidizing bacteria such as <i>Thiobacillus
thioxidans</i> use sulfide of the pyrite (Fe2S) as their substrate for their
ATP synthesis. They oxidize sulfide into sulfate to take electron to run
electron transport chain. This reaction releases ferrous ion from the</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">pyrite (Fe2S). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Then these ferrous ion
is used the substrate by iron oxidizing bacteria such as <i>Acidothiobacillus thioxida</i>ns. They oxidize ferrous ion into ferric
ion. These ferric ions are collected and added to the top of the heap. These
ferric ions undergo a redox reaction with Uraninite. Ferric is reduced into
ferrous. Uraninite (IV) is oxidized into Pitchblende (VI) which less water
soluble. Pitchblende can be collected from the bottom of the tank. Ferrous ions
are again oxidized into ferric by iron oxidizing bacteria.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Bio Leaching of Metal Ions Form Low Grade Metal Depositions

There are metal depositions in the world with low concentrations so they refer to as low grade metal depo...

Preparation of culture media

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Title: Preparation of culture media
Author: natural green
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Culture media are the artificial media that are designed to grown microorganisms in the form of liquid, semi-liqui...

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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Culture media</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> are the artificial media that are
designed to grown microorganisms in the form of liquid, semi-liquid or solid media.                                                         
<b>Importance</b>: Culture media
helps to isolate one particular microorganism group from a mixture. It provides
reliable ways to estimate number of microorganisms. It helps to manipulate
microorganisms to some genetic studies. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           
Microorganisms in the environments depend on various factors such as
nutrients, oxygen, temperature and moisture for their survival, growth and
reproduce.  When</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Chemoheterophic microorganisms are
grown in artificial medium in the laboratory, it has to be supplied externally
carbon source, nitrogen source and energy source. Chemoheterophic
microorganisms refer to as oxidize organic or inorganic substrate to produce
ATP and start their carbon nutrition form organic compounds which are produced
from carbon dioxide by autotrophs.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             Culture media must provide basic
requirements for microorganisms those are needed to grow.  Agar is added as the solidifying agent.
1.0-1.5% agar is added to prepare solid culture media. Semi-sold culture media are
prepared by adding 0.5%agar. <b>Carbon
source</b> is added as the oxidizable substrate for microorganisms to
synthesize their ATP. Lactose is usually added as carbon source. <b>Nitrogen and other nutrients</b> are
provided as beef extract. Usually peptone is added to provide both carbon and
nitrogen with other nutrients to the medium. Peptone is a mixture of partially
digested protein of meet intrusion. It contains proteins that are readily
digestible for microorganisms.  <b>It fastidious microorganisms</b> which has
complex nutrients requirement, it has to be supplied special nutrients. Serum
or yeast extract or beef extract is added to fulfill their special nutrient
requirements.  <b>It selective culture media</b> is needed to prepare to isolate one
microorganism group, antibiotics is added to kill other microorganisms. In
addition to those sources, electron donors and acceptors and growth promoting
vitamins have to be added.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  <b>Consistency of the medium</b> is modified
by adding solidifying agent such as <b>agar,
gelatin or albumin</b>. Earlier gelatin was used as solidifying agent. But
gelatin had some disadvantages. It is liquid at 37◦ C. It is digested by many
bacteria. Therefore later agar which is extracted from red algae is used as solidifying
agent. Solid agar melts at 85◦ C. it is not preferably digested by bacteria. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  In
addition above nutrients requirements, chemical and physical conditions also
must be adjusted for growth of microorganisms.  
Majority of microorganisms are able to survive at neutral pH. Few prefer
extremely acidic or basic pH. Oxygen is also major limiting factor that affect
the growth of microorganisms. Aerobic, facultative and microaerophilc are able
to survive and grow in the presence of oxygen. But anaerobic</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">microorganisms cannot survive in the
presence of oxygen. Therefore if anaerobic microorganisms are needed to grow,
culture media must be free of oxygen. 
Addition of reducing substance, displacement oxygen by carbon dioxide
and boiling are the methods that help to create oxygen free environment.
Microorganisms show maximum growth at their optimum temperature. According to
the temperature requirements, microorganisms are categorized into three groups
such as psychrophilic, mesospheric and thermophile. Psychrophilic grow and
reproduce at 0◦ C. Mesospheric grow and reproduce at 15-30◦ C. Thermophilc
grown even greater than above 90◦ C. Moisture content also effects the growth
of microorganisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              
<b>Nutrient agar (NA)</b> is the
general purpose media for bacteria in the laboratory. It is prepared by adding
beef extract (3g), peptone (5g), agar (15g) and distils water (1000ml). The pH
of the culture media is 6.8±0.2. Bacteria in the free environment are
inoculated at 25◦ C for 48 hours. But human pathogens are inoculated at 37◦ C
because of inner body temperature of human. 
Some bacteria show growth even after 24 hours because growth rate
depends on the species. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                <b>Dextrose potato agar (DPA)</b> is the
general purpose media for fungi in the laboratory. It is prepared by adding dextrose
(20g), potato extract (4g) and agar (15g). Fungi are inoculated at 25◦ C for
5days. Fungi have relatively lower growth rate compare to the bacteria. The pH
of the culture media is 6.2.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                Culture
media are classified according to their consistency, usage, purpose and
nutrient composition. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                According
to <b>consistency</b>, culture media are
divided into three categories such as <b>liquid,
semi- solid</b> and <b>solid</b>. Broth
culture is the example for liquid media. It helps to observe motility and
characteristics of bacteria. Semi- solid media are prepared by adding 0.5%agar.
It gives the advantage of observing motility of bacteria. It provides ideal
environment for inoculating microaerophilic bacteria. Solid media are prepared
by adding 1.0-1.5% agar. Slop media (slunt) and deep stab are the example for
solid media. In slunt, slope provides the high surface area for inoculation.
Slunt is used to inoculate aerobic bacteria while butt is used to inoculate
anaerobic bacteria. Deep stab is used to observe the growth of bacteria
according to oxygen availability. Top area of deep stab is used to inoculate
aerobic bacteria while bottom of the deep stab is used to inoculate anaerobic
bacteria. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                Culture
media are categorized into two groups such as <b>general purpose and special purpose media</b> based on the <b>purpose</b>. General purpose media is
comprised with basic nutrients requirements. These media contains only carbon
source and nitrogen source .Special purpose media supports the growth of
fastidious microorganisms. So in addition to carbon source and nitrogen source,
those media contain special nutrients.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                Culture
media are categorized into <b>simple,
complex and defined (or synthesis)</b> according to the <b>nutrient composition</b>.  Simple
media supports the non-fastidious microorganisms. It includes peptone, water
and nutrient agar. Complex media supports the fastidious microorganisms. Exact
chemical composition of complex media is unable to find. Blood agar is one of
the examples for complex media. Defined (or synthesis) media is used for
researches. Exact chemical composition of the defined media is known. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                Culture
media are classified into basal, enrich, selective or isolation, differentiate,
reducing and transport based on their usage<b>.
Basal media</b> support the growth of non-fastidious microorganisms. It is also
made of peptone, nutrient broth or nutrient agar. <b>Enriched media</b> are used to grow fastidious microorganisms. Their special
nutrient requirement is fulfilled by addition of blood serum, egg york into
basal media. <b>Differential/Indicator</b>
media helps to isolate one microorganisms form other microorganisms. Their
metabolic activates help to isolation of them. As an example, neutral red or bromo
cresol purple is added as the indicator to detect the acid production in
coliform test. Coliform are the special group of bacteria that are able to
produce acids during their sugar fermentation process<b>. Selective and enrichment media</b> are used to inhibit the growth of
untargeted or unwanted microorganisms in a mixture. Addition of antibiotics and
alteration of pH of the media help to inhibit of the untargeted or unwanted
microorganisms. As an example, Brilliant Green Lactose Bile (BALB) broth
contain bile to suppress the growth of gram positive bacteria in the confirm
test of fecal coliform. <b>Transport media</b>
are useful for bringing clinical sample into the laboratory. Those media
supports to inhibit the overgrowth of unwanted microorganisms in a pathogen mixture.  Saline is added to prevent the desiccation.
Charcoal is added to neutralize the inhibitory factors. <b>Reducing or anaerobic</b> media are used for inoculation of anaerobic
microorganisms. Oxygen can be removed by using either physical or chemical
methods. As a psychical method, boiling removes oxygen from the media. Red hot
iron filling can be added to remove oxygen as a chemical method.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Preparation of culture media

Culture media are the artificial media that are designed to grown microorganisms in the form of liquid, semi-liqui...

Endospore staining

natural green

Link Author

Title: Endospore staining
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Endospore is domanet strucure which have no or less metabolic activities. Bactiers form endospre when environemntal conditions are unfavo...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Endospore</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"> is domanet strucure
which have no or less metabolic activities. Bactiers form endospre when
environemntal conditions are  unfavorable
to them such as  high oxygen
concentraion, temperature, heat and desssication. Endospore cannot be killed by
just boilling at 100◦C but at 121◦C. <b><i>Bacillus, Clostridium </i></b>and<b><i>
Sporalactobacillus</i></b><i> </i>are
examples for endospore froming bacteria<i>. <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">                             </span></i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">The outermost layer
of the endopsore is proteinaceous <b>coat</b>.
Bneeth coat, there is a a very thick layer of peptidoglycan which is called as the
<b>cortex</b>. Under cortex, <b>grem cell wall</b> reside. After endospire
germination, grem cell wall become the cell wall fo bacterium. Bneath gren cell
wall, <b>inner membrane</b> is founsd. It
act as adverse premeability barrier. The <b>core
</b>exsits in the center of the endopore. The core is the dehydreted DNA of the
bacterium cell.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFLxvMuX-FFJm5SOrIV2Uk3hCXE7Grf_wTZWPQNWCBeRi6cVcUd2VoICOgHTDtx0W-eyX4EffQFFFHxfeYqw53ivE0IdoPiefnc04y0Oq4OInaWoMMvibazaRVkkxDkphIgCUQoSVgb2z0/s1600/img3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="552" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFLxvMuX-FFJm5SOrIV2Uk3hCXE7Grf_wTZWPQNWCBeRi6cVcUd2VoICOgHTDtx0W-eyX4EffQFFFHxfeYqw53ivE0IdoPiefnc04y0Oq4OInaWoMMvibazaRVkkxDkphIgCUQoSVgb2z0/s640/img3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">Endospore  staining</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"> is a differentiate staining
technique which is used to differentiate bacteria into two groups such as
endospore forming baetria and non endospore forming bateria. Endospore is
stained in green while vegetative cell is stained in pink. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Position of endospore</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: The position of endospore inside
the vegetative cell varies from one bacterium species to another as follows.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLbahiysrBBDBs_wEQfCyQPxcvYukSN_3UKCDfN3Geg1BP0YyjRofWCeRyfplJJ6MhbaJ2xGRkEVzKV9GtFFXqob8NG98yXKOUafvhem4CZAldkB94Wy9saC-pnxElhWvfwxfDPpKJP7h8/s1600/img4.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="295" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLbahiysrBBDBs_wEQfCyQPxcvYukSN_3UKCDfN3Geg1BP0YyjRofWCeRyfplJJ6MhbaJ2xGRkEVzKV9GtFFXqob8NG98yXKOUafvhem4CZAldkB94Wy9saC-pnxElhWvfwxfDPpKJP7h8/s400/img4.PNG" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Procedure</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- A loopful from a broth or agar
plate is taken into a glass slide. Then the smear is prepared by heat fixing at
bunson flame. As the proteins of the cell wall are denatured by heat, it
supports the bacterium cells to adhere to the slide. The smear is stained by
flooding with Malachite green. It is allowed Malachite green to act for 5
minutes.  The underside of the slide is
heated by using alcohol deep cotton wool. 
It is allowed the slide to cool. Stained smear is decolorized by using
water and air dry. Safranin is added as the counterstain. It is allowed
Safranin to react for 30seconds. Excess Safranin is washed away by using water
and air dry. Endospore and it vegetative cell are observed under oil immersion
objectives.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-no-proof: yes;">

</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Observations:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDemc-USk1p5gBO5BwBzy9iQmWlZdF8a_2hR37CnFJqSg7dDCW2XxYrGoAwC4gLhxtQ04_5FoLgF_FA6kBJwj-S_la0KuQX6qE1Q_maboQjag7LIhm9rDz7bkQTkwbGthc82ToD6AOh4EN/s1600/img5.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDemc-USk1p5gBO5BwBzy9iQmWlZdF8a_2hR37CnFJqSg7dDCW2XxYrGoAwC4gLhxtQ04_5FoLgF_FA6kBJwj-S_la0KuQX6qE1Q_maboQjag7LIhm9rDz7bkQTkwbGthc82ToD6AOh4EN/s400/img5.PNG" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Theory</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At the room temperature, the spore
wall which mostly contain keratin resist to dyes. But heating make the spore
wall more permeable to malachite green and allow it to bind to peptidoglycan
layer. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">So both vegetative cell and endospore
are stained in green color.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After cooling, spore wall seals again
and trap malachite green inside the wall.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">At the decolonization step, malachite
green rinse only forms the vegetative cells. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">

</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Counter stain, safranin I only able
to stain the vegetative cell because stain is unable to penetrate the spore
wall due to the less permeability. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>

Endospore staining

Endospore is domanet strucure which have no or less metabolic activities. Bactiers form endospre when environemntal conditions are unfavo...

Wastewater treatment

natural green

Link Author

Title: Wastewater treatment
Author: natural green
Rating 5 of 5 Des:

Wastewater contains a large fraction of organic matter which needs to be treated before discharge. Aerobic respiratory bacteria are capable...

<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wastewater contains a large fraction of organic matter which
needs to be treated before discharge. Aerobic respiratory bacteria are capable
of degrading organic matter into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
the oxygen.  It leaves environment clean
without any residue. But the action of aerobic respiratory bacteria is
inhibited when there is no adequate oxygen.  <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             
Then anaerobic respiratory bacteria become active. They are also able to
degrade organic matter into carbon dioxide. But they use non oxygen terminal
electron acceptors such as sulfate, ferric and nitrate ions. They reduce
sulfate ions into odiferous toxic gas hydrogen sulfide, water insoluble ferric
into ferrous and nitrate into nitrogen gas which cause infertility in aquatic
ecosystems. So although anaerobic respiratory bacteria degrade organic matter
completely into carbon dioxide, they cause environmental pollution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                       <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Under anaerobic conditions,
fermentation also takes place. Fermentative bacteria such as <b><i>Clostridium</i></b>
use organic matter as their substrate and degrade them partially into acids,
alcohols and aldehydes. Acids cause acidification of aquatic water bodies.
Acids dissolve minerals and release toxic metal ions to the water. Ex: Al (3+).
Alcohols and aldehydes may be volatile which cause atmospheric pollution. They
cause producing unpleasant odor. If enough oxygen is available, these small
organic compounds can be degraded into carbon dioxide completely.  But in most cases oxygen is still not
available, so anaerobic respiratory microorganisms degrade these small organic
compounds into carbon dioxide and cause pollution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                             Therefore
anaerobic respiration and fermentation are not the proper solutions for
wastewater treatment. <b>Aerobic
respiration is the best solution</b>. Wastewater is collected from the all over
the premises and directed into an aeration tank. Here water is continuously
aerated for 4-8 hours. Mechanical aerators are used to oxygenate the water. The
oxygen concentration should be maintained in-between 0.5-2mg/l. it is impossible
to retain wastewater until the all organic matter degrade.  After retention time, wastewater is
transferred to the settling tank or primary clarifier. Here unoxidized or
partially oxidized organic matter is allowed to settle down at the bottom while
clear water is directed for further treatment. 
A fraction of sediments is returned to the aeration tank as the <b>activated sludge</b> to enhance the
treatment process.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheabdBYImTAxJGToq8uWevte7xJwJ0dMkhaUI5wjlMbr2ZOEEKhx-hSDTyF8w1hD6fjl2JKlOggPYM-qwItXzfCX4UlPRx4cEkTLSNpgLEeOa9ABNxhVPKn_1anQiKVnljzPhfC6_h8pgP/s1600/wastewater.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="302" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheabdBYImTAxJGToq8uWevte7xJwJ0dMkhaUI5wjlMbr2ZOEEKhx-hSDTyF8w1hD6fjl2JKlOggPYM-qwItXzfCX4UlPRx4cEkTLSNpgLEeOa9ABNxhVPKn_1anQiKVnljzPhfC6_h8pgP/s640/wastewater.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sludge digestion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: The sediment that is collected from
the bottom of settling or sedimentation tank is transferred into an anaerobic
digester. Sludge is completely degraded into carbon dioxide. The sludge mostly
contains the high strength organic matter which is needed to degreed into small
organic compounds by fermentative bacteria such as <b><i>Clostridium. </i></b>They degrade
the organic matter partially into acids, alcohol and aldehydes. Then small
organic compounds are degraded completely into carbon dioxide by anaerobic
bacteria. Most of that carbon dioxide is reduced into Methane by methanogens
such as <b><i>Methanomonas </i></b>and <b><i>Methanococcus</i></b>. Methane is a
combustible gas which can be used as alternative fuel for fossil fuel. The
reaming in the digester is transferred into another setting tank for settling
down for sediments. A portion of this sediment is returned to the digester for
seedling the incoming unoxidized sediments. Rest is disposed as a valuable
fertilizer for agriculture and land escaping.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Wastewater treatment

Wastewater contains a large fraction of organic matter which needs to be treated before discharge. Aerobic respiratory bacteria are capable...

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