(2) Soil pH

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     What is soil pH?<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Soil pH is the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. pH more than 7 is alkalinity. pH lower than 7 is acidity. 7 is natural which is pure water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghtA0Gv3DGtYnmNa-RTW2DWeEdZ8izYUNAIAbKPfEGvWP4WsS8ni5ktosApQDXEjqrDNvkpLZArhpzSt3XW2gq2yCw72sPEth84GI8jTOi8o989GAyFUlBZN1ZZDQjqCdeN4h2IA6fKLou/s1600/phRanges.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghtA0Gv3DGtYnmNa-RTW2DWeEdZ8izYUNAIAbKPfEGvWP4WsS8ni5ktosApQDXEjqrDNvkpLZArhpzSt3XW2gq2yCw72sPEth84GI8jTOi8o989GAyFUlBZN1ZZDQjqCdeN4h2IA6fKLou/s1600/phRanges.gif" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Soil pH is one of the most important soil properties that affect the availability of nutrients. Nutrients are essential for the healthy growth of plants. They can be divided into three categories as macronutrients and micronutrients. Micronutrients are B, Cu, Fe, Cl, Mn, Mo and Zn. Macronutrients can be also divided into two categories as primary nutrients and secondary nutrients. Primary nutrients are N, P, and K. Secondary nutrients are Ca, Mg and S.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                       Secondary nutrients and micronutrients are less available at lower acidity. Macronutrients are less available for higher acidity. Therefore pH affects the growth of plants by the availability of nutrients at a certain pH. Some minerals are also toxic by increasing concentration in soil. Al and Mn are more available at highly acidic soil that is toxic to soils.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBH0tkSoxLjU3ZJLysBEOqdE2uhQz_hM1285JHwO-j8wdsXCyRDsnYmfuiKFsuQoSR_aVmCxKIsb6Czdy2gd9gLabkzDl9dWqjSbsdi1bAMzXg3jRhHq53NjuPEPD1paENwdlSx5tC2wvI/s1600/toxist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBH0tkSoxLjU3ZJLysBEOqdE2uhQz_hM1285JHwO-j8wdsXCyRDsnYmfuiKFsuQoSR_aVmCxKIsb6Czdy2gd9gLabkzDl9dWqjSbsdi1bAMzXg3jRhHq53NjuPEPD1paENwdlSx5tC2wvI/s320/toxist.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.2   </span><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Factors Affecting Soil pH<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 188.3pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1) Climate<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0muiuEYDcA4SQmcpX6qP2i2-YBk9t7rcwG78qVP0b1mxlHkNy4AUt5L_8nBcdiW4VIYuwbS99tLQOW4hd0YldupQrmX5_Xj9ICrNA8XCA0XMLTzfeCTYWzIzcBiAAYb0b2662jMJ5fLrG/s1600/soilPh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="185" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0muiuEYDcA4SQmcpX6qP2i2-YBk9t7rcwG78qVP0b1mxlHkNy4AUt5L_8nBcdiW4VIYuwbS99tLQOW4hd0YldupQrmX5_Xj9ICrNA8XCA0XMLTzfeCTYWzIzcBiAAYb0b2662jMJ5fLrG/s320/soilPh.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2) Parent material<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When parent material is acid rock, pH is acidity. When parent material is basic, pH is alkalinity.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3) Rainfall <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             Soils formed under high rainfall conditions are more acidic than those formed under arid (dry) conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4) Fertilizers<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Fertilizers that are consist of ammonia and urea, develop the acidity in the soil. The decomposition of organic matter has also increased the acidity of the soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">2.3 </span><u style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Increasing the Soil pH</u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Lime can be added to the soil to make it less acidic and also supplies calcium and magnesium for plants to use. Different soils will require a different amount of lime to adjust the soil pH value. The texture of the soil, organic matter content and the plants to be grown are all factors to consider in adjusting the pH value. For example, soils low in clay require less lime than soils high in clay to make the same pH change.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">– Lime also raises the pH to the desired range of 6.0 to 6.5. In this pH range, nutrients are more readily available to plants, and microbial populations in the soil increase<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.3.1  Function of limes<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Toxicities include Al is reduced. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil physical conditions are improved.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Microbial activities are stimulated. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> The availability of essential nutrients is improved.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> </div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 2.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ca and Mg are supplied for plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

(2) Soil pH

     What is soil pH?                                   Soil pH is the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. pH more than 7 is alkalinit...

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Soil density

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">        Soil particle density and bulk density </span></div> <div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Particle density</span></div> </div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;">              </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil is a three-phase system that consists of a solid phase (organic matter and inorganic matter), gaseous phase and liquid phase (water).<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL20NYGKDg24rDgSzdJahc9yHvgYJvP9uejDHf-Y9GmMcdukGJYI0VhFcdgygH3uJWrM8vigbLNLikqqZHzhLNxGDW2ZToovKuqU7i6J3W9FYnNJEaQ7H8brY52S-efScKIL6gKBAnvkYW/s1600/gas.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL20NYGKDg24rDgSzdJahc9yHvgYJvP9uejDHf-Y9GmMcdukGJYI0VhFcdgygH3uJWrM8vigbLNLikqqZHzhLNxGDW2ZToovKuqU7i6J3W9FYnNJEaQ7H8brY52S-efScKIL6gKBAnvkYW/s1600/gas.gif" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                For particle density, the volume of the solid phase is only considered.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">            Particle density is the volumetric mass of the solid soil. 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style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <b><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Table Particle density of different soil textural classes<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <b><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"> <tbody> <tr> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 234.9pt;" valign="top" width="313"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Textural classes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 243.9pt;" valign="top" width="325"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Particle density ( g/ cm3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 234.9pt;" valign="top" width="313"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Coarse sand<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 243.9pt;" valign="top" width="325"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">2.655<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 234.9pt;" valign="top" width="313"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Fine sand<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 243.9pt;" valign="top" width="325"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">2.798<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 3.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;"> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 3.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 234.9pt;" valign="top" width="313"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Silt<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 3.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 243.9pt;" valign="top" width="325"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 234.9pt;" valign="top" width="313"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Clay<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 243.9pt;" valign="top" width="325"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">2.387<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bulk density<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;">             </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bulk density is the ratio of the mass of a given soil sample to its bulk volume.  Both volumes of solid particles and pores are considered as bulk volume.     <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">              Soils that are loose, porous, or well aggregated will have lower bulk densities than soils that are compacted or non-aggregated. 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CAAAACEAu+VIlAUBAAAeAgAAEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAW0NvbnRlbnRfVHlwZXNdLnhtbFBL AQItABQABgAIAAAAIQCtMD/xwQAAADIBAAALAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADYBAABfcmVscy8ucmVsc1BL AQItABQABgAIAAAAIQCmvxHouwEAAFIEAAAfAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACACAABjbGlwYm9hcmQvZHJh d2luZ3MvZHJhd2luZzEueG1sUEsBAi0AFAAGAAgAAAAhAJxOXiHiBgAAOhwAABoAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAGAQAAGNsaXBib2FyZC90aGVtZS90aGVtZTEueG1sUEsBAi0AFAAGAAgAAAAhAJxmRkG7AAAA JAEAACoAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMgsAAGNsaXBib2FyZC9kcmF3aW5ncy9fcmVscy9kcmF3aW5nMS54 bWwucmVsc1BLBQYAAAAABQAFAGcBAAA1DAAAAAA= " strokecolor="#4579b8 [3044]"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 6px; margin-left: 209px; margin-top: 58px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 375px; z-index: 251660288;"></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    * Bulk density= Mass of oven dry soil/<o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px; text-align: center;">Bulk volume of </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px; text-align: center;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">   </span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: underline;">Sample calculation for particle density and bulk density</span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: underline;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPzqqpgtsm3lej_rbnVsfx0676sOddvnYXRXDB90uys3IWPM6CI1jqLWpvv3PqmnPYeY4Dh9cXO56ebw9invcW9-SSYHsdDPSGkS7z5lPUvQONf9oWH_9T-Q5uA-nAluxd2h1dKnkgm-F-/s1600/density.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPzqqpgtsm3lej_rbnVsfx0676sOddvnYXRXDB90uys3IWPM6CI1jqLWpvv3PqmnPYeY4Dh9cXO56ebw9invcW9-SSYHsdDPSGkS7z5lPUvQONf9oWH_9T-Q5uA-nAluxd2h1dKnkgm-F-/s320/density.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; text-decoration: underline;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt 101.25pt;"> <span style="color: red; font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         </span><span style="color: red; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Soil particle density is always larger than soil bulk density.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u>Bulk the density of different textural classes</u></span></b></div> <div class="MsoCaption" style="page-break-after: avoid;"> <br /></div> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: .5in; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"> <tbody> <tr> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Textural class<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Bulk density (g/cc)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Pore space (%)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Sandy soil<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">1.6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">40<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Loam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">1.4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">47<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Silt loam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">1.3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">50<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">Clay<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">1.1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 159.6pt;" valign="top" width="213"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt;">58<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt 101.25pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     According to the above table, sandy soils have less total pore than clayey soils, so generally, they have higher bulk densities. Bulk densities of sandy soils usually vary between 1.2 to 1.8 Mg m3. Finetextured soils, such as Clays, silt clays, or clay loams, have bulk densities between 1.0 and 1.6 Mg m-3.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                    <u>Factors affecting soil bulk density<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1) Porosity (When the soil has relatively more pores, soils have a lower weight per unit volume therefore soil bulk density relatively is lower.)</span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkqR4bvzH8VZFrydhD38boHLStdIVhg410qejOT9y3U1iq2GcAkNgGXf5YD0vsYcYKcPWKGek7fCqyjl2tkxoyQi_73LRb-A4awlT4V6RHCH1iUopKk08ndTbLmDo3pQpeKXBGi4cikjQI/s1600/bulk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkqR4bvzH8VZFrydhD38boHLStdIVhg410qejOT9y3U1iq2GcAkNgGXf5YD0vsYcYKcPWKGek7fCqyjl2tkxoyQi_73LRb-A4awlT4V6RHCH1iUopKk08ndTbLmDo3pQpeKXBGi4cikjQI/s320/bulk.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2)</span><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Organic matter (When soil have more organic matter, soils are well aggregated together so pores are lower, therefore, bulk density is relatively lower.)</span><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;">BULK DENSITY INCREASING</span></b></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <b><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">           Clayey                                      Loamy                                                         Sandy  <o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">    Well aggregated              moderately aggregated                                 Non-aggregated<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">    High organic content      Moderate organic content                           Low organic matte content      <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3)</span><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aggregation (When soils are well aggregated, pore are larger and the number of pores is increased mass per unit volume is low, therefore bulk density is low)</span><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4)</span><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Arrangement of particles(When soil particles are loose bounded together, the soil has more pores so soils have a mass per unit volume, therefore soils have low bulk density.)</span><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5) Compaction (The compaction resulting from cultivation can be detrimental to plant growth. Cropped soils generally have higher bulk densities than uncultivated soils.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The movement of machinery over the field forces solid particles into spaces once occupied by water or air, resulting in less pore space and increased bulk density. )<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfM1-rE7uZEYi7IaGryTHBWTyiSdpkTThtYCnBy1biDktgnEMA2dkBgTPTPXDtdInCvucuLHOzZGRAFYXq7Z3zQ1V7vtPGZB69-rbzaAOXHIu-S_yna9foMhK0xv4w4-6XoTqNWeR5FwJM/s1600/bulkDensity.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfM1-rE7uZEYi7IaGryTHBWTyiSdpkTThtYCnBy1biDktgnEMA2dkBgTPTPXDtdInCvucuLHOzZGRAFYXq7Z3zQ1V7vtPGZB69-rbzaAOXHIu-S_yna9foMhK0xv4w4-6XoTqNWeR5FwJM/s1600/bulkDensity.gif" /></a></div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6) Depth of soil profile(lower layers of soils have less organic matter, roots and compact due to the above soil layers, so mass per unit volume is relatively low therefore bulk density is also low.)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 61.5pt;"> <!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_s1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:0;margin-top:0;width:185.25pt;height:323.25pt; z-index:251662336;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square; mso-wrap-distance-left:9pt;mso-wrap-distance-top:0;mso-wrap-distance-right:9pt; mso-wrap-distance-bottom:0;mso-position-horizontal:left; mso-position-horizontal-relative:text;mso-position-vertical:top; mso-position-vertical-relative:text'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\MADHUS~1\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.emz" o:title=""/> <w:wrap type="square"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aggregation can decrease some of these effects.</span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-bBxV9O0fqACBXwvyc0u94tBEoTUXTJg4VQj75LVfGae9yQEW4fGHkKsozF5MdhEPFyVrJGn7jhCXvSXkampNjCwi_uCcfuk2lDmN_ZOwvUy1wWDt6DDcyj0NLXg1YEyuHVWGUTPHmGet/s1600/soil%2527.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-bBxV9O0fqACBXwvyc0u94tBEoTUXTJg4VQj75LVfGae9yQEW4fGHkKsozF5MdhEPFyVrJGn7jhCXvSXkampNjCwi_uCcfuk2lDmN_ZOwvUy1wWDt6DDcyj0NLXg1YEyuHVWGUTPHmGet/s320/soil%2527.png" width="183" /></a></span></div> </div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Soil density

        Soil particle density and bulk density  Particle density                Soil is a three-phase system that consists of a soli...

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(7) Soil texture

<head> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script> <!-- Google Tag Manager </head> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-WB7BTP" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= '//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-WB7BTP');</script> <!-- End Google Tag Manager --> <br /> --> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">7.1 <u>What is the soil texture?<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                     45% of the soil is composed of minerals components. Soil texture is based on a weight ratio of the three soil separates (sand, silt, and clay).<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                          Therefore we can define as; Soil texture is relative proprtions of sand,silt and clay in a mass of soil.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                              </span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.2 <u>How the soil texture is formed?<o:p></o:p></u></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                       Texture is the result of weathering parent material. Weathering can be occurred in two types these are physical withering and chemical weathering. In physical weathering, rocks are brake down into small pieces. In chemical weathering, chemical composition of minerals is converted to other forms.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                       Weathering rate is depended on chemical composition and structure of parent material. It causes to from different textures soils. When parent material is shale and easily weather, it formed clay-rich soils. When parent material is graphite and relatively slow weathered, it forms sandy, coarse soils<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYMOVVk-AWG6fiw9c4gOFxj7b8KbXusWROHsu2s6NNDvpjdWBVL6qZTd8FF8xmiEjkqjB96uEqp0QFKKDVxpyL62Z76qs18uteP8XTaNiN0Wz26sRF_05kNRUGdCkg2jxFOExk7DkkNHVt/s1600/air_mineral.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYMOVVk-AWG6fiw9c4gOFxj7b8KbXusWROHsu2s6NNDvpjdWBVL6qZTd8FF8xmiEjkqjB96uEqp0QFKKDVxpyL62Z76qs18uteP8XTaNiN0Wz26sRF_05kNRUGdCkg2jxFOExk7DkkNHVt/s320/air_mineral.png" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                       7.3 <u>Classification of soil grains </u></span></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                                    </span></span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil particles</span><br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> Coarse fraction                                                Find fraction</div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> (<2 mm)                                                           (2 mm>)</div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> Gravel                                                             <span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Sand (5 mm- 0.5)mm                                         </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Coarse                                                             </span><span style="text-indent: 0.5in;">Silt (0.5 mm-0.002 mm)</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 47.25pt; tab-stops: .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">    7.4 <u>Coarse grained soils<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 47.25pt; tab-stops: .5in 1.0in 1.5in 2.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Coarse soils are considered as single-grained soils. They are visible to naked eye (Without using microscopes). The diameter of coarse soil is more than 2 mm.</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Gravels, cobbles and boulders are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">belong</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> to coarse grained soils. Coarse soils are not considered as fine fraction.</span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEGls3jodAWVOM2OwOvZ_rE_JQcX6CIdCb0aHP8rQJGRipwmYKPQ7_GkkGnP9ORY_8z7UvM5gHN1lRiJHC89Vq3DRhKB0RBcPh6hJM8JtBYfqKNLxi4PNGD9Dt-ZjcSqYkeqee876o-p2U/s1600/grained_soil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEGls3jodAWVOM2OwOvZ_rE_JQcX6CIdCb0aHP8rQJGRipwmYKPQ7_GkkGnP9ORY_8z7UvM5gHN1lRiJHC89Vq3DRhKB0RBcPh6hJM8JtBYfqKNLxi4PNGD9Dt-ZjcSqYkeqee876o-p2U/s320/grained_soil.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">     7.5 <u>Fine grained soil</u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtAa9r2C5NU0ZMBFpRdUchOatCBhJjFU2TcXTrlwK_zXV72xTDH3chGHz7-nxk9rIwA2mK96cmaY8WoTCLX5b4GdrpnJVtrhpHyJPivHqUioKzI3Bdnvefpt7FKujR4BX5iQCkCFwS6HOX/s1600/particle.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="224" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtAa9r2C5NU0ZMBFpRdUchOatCBhJjFU2TcXTrlwK_zXV72xTDH3chGHz7-nxk9rIwA2mK96cmaY8WoTCLX5b4GdrpnJVtrhpHyJPivHqUioKzI3Bdnvefpt7FKujR4BX5iQCkCFwS6HOX/s320/particle.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;"> <tbody> <tr style="height: 40.9pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Sand<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Silt<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 40.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Clay<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Diameter<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">2 mm-0.05 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">0.05 mm-0.002mm<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">0.002 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Feeling<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Gritty<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Smooth<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Sticky<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Surface area<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Low<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Large<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Nutrients for plants<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Less<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">More<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Most<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Permeability of water<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Rapid<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Moderate<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Slow<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Shape<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Rounded/angular<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Visibility<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Era visible<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non-visible without microscope<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non-visible without microscope<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Wet<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">No stickiness<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">No stickiness<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Stickiness<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Plastic<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Non<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Very<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> <td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"> <br /></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">7.6 <u>Properties related to texture<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.0pt;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Porosity</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         Although sand particles have relatively larger pores, it doesn’t consist of more pores than other because sandy soils are not well aggregated therefore amount of pores in unit volume is relatively lower. Clay soils are well aggregated therefore it has amount of pore in unit volume is relatively higher. Clay soil has usually small size pores. Therefore clay soils have relatively larger porosity than sandy soil</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -21.0pt;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">     1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">   </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Infiltration <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Water porn through the soil vertically. Sandy soils has relatively larger infiltration capacity than silt and clay soils because sandy soils are composed of large pores that are connected to together very well therefore water can move relatively  more rapidly.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-add-space: auto;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         3) Erodibility <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                  Erodibity is ability to erode of soil particles. Soils have high   percentages of silt and clay, these soils are more tended to erode under some unbeneficial conditions than sandy soils.  <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     4) Water holding capacity<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                           Clay soils have relatively more water holding capacity than silts and sands because clay soils has macro pores between aggregates and micro pores within the aggregates and these pores are not connected together very well so water doesn’t drained downward in soil therefore clay soils can store relatively more water. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">7.7 <u>Importance of soils<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    1) Water flow potential<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    2) Water holding capacity<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    3) Fertility potential<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    4) Suitability for many urban uses like bearing capacity<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    5) Aeration <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    6) CEC (Cation exchange capacity)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 50.25pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt center 3.5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 97.5pt; tab-stops: 47.25pt 3.0in; text-indent: .5in;"> <o:p></o:p></div> </div>

(7) Soil texture

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Soil water measurement

<script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         Soil water measurement instruments can be divided as follows. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                        </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Soil water measurement</b></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                        </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                   <b> Soil water content  </b>                                                      </span></span><b>Soil water potential</b><br />                                                                                                            <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">-Tensiometer</span><br />                                                                                                            <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8666687011719px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8666687011719px;">-Electric resistance</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">   <b>Volumetric</b>                                                    </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Gravimetric</b>                               </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8666687011719px;">  </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8666687011719px;">-Thermal dissipation</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">-Neutron scatting                                                                                               </span> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8666687011719px;">-Psychomotor</span><br />                                                                                                         <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <o:p></o:p></div> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">          <u>Soil water potential measurement equipment<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                                                   <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These instruments have the ability to measure matric water potential with using of sufficiently less expensive and reliable methods.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                              <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Tensiometer<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tensiometer is composed of a porous ceramic cup and a sealed plastic cylindrical tube. The pressure measuring device is connected to the ceramic cup by the cylindrical tube at top of the cylindrical tube. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7hkuOjAqfKe-fn0PDAWHNdt1nbQalSbx-vbfyDtdOkfC001ubojm8o1McyxvbhpEAAEa3esJwURnVe_ouubKxSdEK9I7rYyzsVuq4OsJT66lrC3w518RgBQZ9Hbng_ykLElsdVozcgpbO/s1600/Tensiometer.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7hkuOjAqfKe-fn0PDAWHNdt1nbQalSbx-vbfyDtdOkfC001ubojm8o1McyxvbhpEAAEa3esJwURnVe_ouubKxSdEK9I7rYyzsVuq4OsJT66lrC3w518RgBQZ9Hbng_ykLElsdVozcgpbO/s320/Tensiometer.png" width="285" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Working principle</span>:<o:p></o:p><br /> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Semi-equilibrium is existed with soil water by tensiometer.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Saturation of ceramic cup is essential to get readings accurately because it acts as cell membrane and water move through into the system.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With beginning of process, the tensiometer is adjusted to get negative pressure because water move from tensiomter to soil.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Difference of water potential is recorded as a difference of pressure by using a U tube which is filled with water or mercury.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If water potential increases, water moves from soils to tensiomter therefore it causes for less negative potential.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Negative potential will be caused for gasses which are released from solution to form air bubbles. It affects to the reading of the tensiomter.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Tensiomter has a practical operating range of 0-0.75Bar.If the pressure is above 1bar at ambient temperature, water start to form water vapor it also affects to alter pressure readings.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The cylinders of tensiomter must be existed under a vacuum, so cylinders must be frequently needed to de-air. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Large numbers of roots are often accumulated in ceramic cup.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Before and after installation of tensiomter, ceramic cup is existed under wet condition. Even though during the transportation of tensiomter must be covered with water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The hole which is prepared for installation of tensiomter must have suitable size and depth. Suitable depth is important for extending tensiomter to refill and de-air. Suitable size is important for tensiomter to fir enough with every side.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Thermal expansion of the upper tensiometer cylinder may be induced by interception of solar radiation. The pressure gradient from soil to tensiomter causes for thermal expansion.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The cylinder must be shaded or the cylinder must be made by non-conducting materials such as plastics to avoid thermal expansion.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages: <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Tensiometer is inexpensive equipment for soil water potential measurement.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)It is reliable to use in field-scale monitoring programs. <o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Tensiomter can be only used under wet conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)The pressure range is limited.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)The tensiomter occur slow process even rapid change of soil matric potential. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal">                                                               <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Resistance blocks<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal">                                        <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Electrodes are encased within a porous material such as gypsum, plastics and fabrics.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_DlbCCtZ32Q2O1xpDp03JZBOZsDZUOTugq3wAFs0jSn5CoVa54gTH-cGjVyw2zxsmtTayMltV8ycDkPEFsBWGtXF9ePZUYlfUGBzWgOWOcB82T8XFNCLywWJhcL0VZsONyhzuSxzjWiNo/s1600/Resistance.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="231" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_DlbCCtZ32Q2O1xpDp03JZBOZsDZUOTugq3wAFs0jSn5CoVa54gTH-cGjVyw2zxsmtTayMltV8ycDkPEFsBWGtXF9ePZUYlfUGBzWgOWOcB82T8XFNCLywWJhcL0VZsONyhzuSxzjWiNo/s320/Resistance.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Working principle:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Semi- equilibrium is occurred soil after two days.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Water potential is measured as a function of electrical resistance.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It tends to process at lower water contents which have relatively higher tension.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Resistance is decreased according to the increasing of saline. But gypsum blocks are less sensitive to saline.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gypsum blocks are needed to correct for temperature.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Before make for hole to install, a drain must be prepared for lead wires to minimize to flow water along wires to the blocks.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">For calibration, the blocks must be saturated with distilled water and adjusted the predetermined pressure in pressure-plate equipment. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The resistance block must be frequently calibrated before and after installation because calibration curves change with time.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)It usually takes two days to semi-equilibrium with soil.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)It can be used only under dry conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)Some types of resistance blocks are sensitive to saline. It causes for decreasing resistance.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(4)Resistance blocks are needed to calibrate individually.</span> <o:p></o:p><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)Resistance blocks are less expansive<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Relatively minimum maintenance is needed for resistance blocks.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 87.95pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3)Psychrometer<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                 </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A Psychrometer is composed of mini thermocouple within a small chamber which has a porous wall.</span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8I7gw4D5hfy0bUH8yxQvYU119RfnKAAW-g68lRAztmWTJBGUShGENcJLen6EKtFrfvBplvvpzi0bEkYbUl7jb0sJkw2M84uq75Qeceiu1omZzf2af6I7_gfVo0Xvy87ovBLxNVeGNI9lA/s1600/thermocouple.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8I7gw4D5hfy0bUH8yxQvYU119RfnKAAW-g68lRAztmWTJBGUShGENcJLen6EKtFrfvBplvvpzi0bEkYbUl7jb0sJkw2M84uq75Qeceiu1omZzf2af6I7_gfVo0Xvy87ovBLxNVeGNI9lA/s320/thermocouple.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Working principle:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The thermocouple is cooled by the evaporation of water from the junction. It causes the production of current.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Measurements are responded according to the changes in soil water potential quickly.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A psychrometer is most suitable for lower matric potentials which are less than -300kPa.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Readings must be obtained at the same time each day to minimize to thermal expansion and extractions according to changes in temperature.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disadvantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)A psychrometer is sensitive to sensitivity.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)It can be measured by only pressures of less than -300kPa.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) Readings can be changed according to the temperature difference of the surrounding environment.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(1)It’s very sensitive to temperature differences.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Phsychroomter is a less expensive device.</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Soil water measurement

         Soil water measurement instruments can be divided as follows.                                          Soil water measurement...

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