Soil water potential

<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil water potential is the energy state of water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Potential of pure water is zero because pure water is not exerted any extra forces.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil water has negative water potential.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Water usually flows from less water potential to more water potential.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">¥T= ¥g + ¥m + ¥o<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">¥t-Total water potential<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">¥g- Gravitational potential<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">¥m-Matric potential<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">¥o-Osmatric potential<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">¥o- Concentration difference of solutions which are separated by semi-membrane is causes for matric potential. The solution has high concentration means that the water potential of the solution is relatively low. The solution has low concentration means that the water potential of the solution is relatively high therefore water moves from solution which has a low concentration to the solution which has a high concentration. Water moves until occurring of equilibrium between both sides of the cell membrane.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ym- Osmatric potential is the result of both capillary forces and adsorptive forces. The capillary force causes the formation of a gas-liquid interface. Adsorptive forces between soil and water surface are occurred due to the extension of wander Waals forces by the cohesive of hydrogen bonds between water molecules.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0lStRyMSfmhlRK7hDpna6q6v0IPhzUwBhtp1K10NgsXx74yUDhW9UHoneNe62hDTRTYjqdTVKk65G6-kNME4UU4N8aHfJLA1VfD9GOkLa8bi4Q3KScP79m3fZ_emwOvfyXBVd-QVf7Rgw/s1600/water.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="170" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0lStRyMSfmhlRK7hDpna6q6v0IPhzUwBhtp1K10NgsXx74yUDhW9UHoneNe62hDTRTYjqdTVKk65G6-kNME4UU4N8aHfJLA1VfD9GOkLa8bi4Q3KScP79m3fZ_emwOvfyXBVd-QVf7Rgw/s320/water.png" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yg-The force of gravity which is exerted from the vertical side is pulled from the water towards gravity.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Soil water potential

Soil water potential is the energy state of water. Potential of pure water is zero because pure water is not exerted any extra forces. Soil water has negative water potential. Water usually flows fro…

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(6) Permeability

<div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     Soil permeability is the ease with which air, water, or plant roots penetrate or pass through the soil.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The size of pore space and interconnectivity of the<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">spaces help determine permeability, so the shape and arrangement of grains play a role.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">                <u>Permeability for soils<o:p></o:p></u></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Type of grain                                          </span></span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Permeability(cm/s)</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Well sorted gravel                                 </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">102 to 1</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">silt sands, fine sands                             </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">10-5 to 10-3</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">silt, sandy silts, clayey sands, till         </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">10-6 to 10-4</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Clay                                                          </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">10-9 to 10-6</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqxEuWUNwgQS0aEVN76-tpVolwpotmFTOmHTYLiTR98oCi5etn5Qe_7u_D9n7TIrWDa3nheGlliWhJa9inLgNWcesQ5GONI8hYy44o8jVD-zJUUO2RZZqP7KKdGShvOubeqnytOv2F5ebj/s1600/porous.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="187" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqxEuWUNwgQS0aEVN76-tpVolwpotmFTOmHTYLiTR98oCi5etn5Qe_7u_D9n7TIrWDa3nheGlliWhJa9inLgNWcesQ5GONI8hYy44o8jVD-zJUUO2RZZqP7KKdGShvOubeqnytOv2F5ebj/s320/porous.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although sandy soils have lower porosity than clay soils, sandy soils have relatively larger permeability than clay because pores in clay are not connected together very well.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLg_g-MOofukzOfRwEgVXyg1MWQrd2ar0_BtZdx-j0lNjo8XyL1gPhPDpQkbK2zHlTkysNkWt6olUhDIeNiiFXRJVTviuXZsJMBXgdmVqCCT6AtnGYiWNFuUJfgrPqOORl2xJX9ZjjWil6/s1600/loose.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="162" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLg_g-MOofukzOfRwEgVXyg1MWQrd2ar0_BtZdx-j0lNjo8XyL1gPhPDpQkbK2zHlTkysNkWt6olUhDIeNiiFXRJVTviuXZsJMBXgdmVqCCT6AtnGYiWNFuUJfgrPqOORl2xJX9ZjjWil6/s320/loose.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The most rapid water and air movement is in sands because sand soils have relatively larger pores and loose aggregated structure.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivp-bWb_lVZhjU_b3QwNTZil7UFOfRoP8ZMZYUfl5jW2l7M_JoK5bG6UXDMCtXyscXTO9x87WRhsydcxeHU5B0QyIA3-fj10XhwOvkKmxnu8qvXYw6GiJ_I8cZG3ZM49qxdVGyAVP1wGrs/s1600/actulPath.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivp-bWb_lVZhjU_b3QwNTZil7UFOfRoP8ZMZYUfl5jW2l7M_JoK5bG6UXDMCtXyscXTO9x87WRhsydcxeHU5B0QyIA3-fj10XhwOvkKmxnu8qvXYw6GiJ_I8cZG3ZM49qxdVGyAVP1wGrs/s1600/actulPath.gif" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); 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(6) Permeability

                     Soil permeability is the ease with which air, water, or plant roots penetrate or pass through the soil. The size of pore space and interconnectivity of the spaces help determine …

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Soil strength

<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil strength is defined as the amount of force required to move or rearrange soil particles.</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <h3> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.1</span></u><u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></u><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Factors affecting soil strength<o:p></o:p></span></u></h3> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <h4> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">(1) </span><span style="line-height: 115%;">Moisture conten</span><span style="line-height: 115%;">t</span></span></h4> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   When soils are saturated or waterlogged, soils are relatively weaker, therefore, soils can be easily broken down.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Soils cannot be easily broken down because of dry conditions. Therefore these soils are more strength.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;"> <h4> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) Bulk density</span></h4> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   When soils have low bulk density, these soils can be easily broken down because these soils consist of relatively more pores so mass per unit volume is relatively low. Therefore soil can be easily broken down.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Soils cannot be easily broken down because when the soil has a high bulk density that’s mean, the soil has relatively lower pores so mass per unit volume is relatively high.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <h4> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) Structure</span></h4> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                When soils are well aggregated like clay soils, the soils have relatively larger strength. Sands, sandy loams and loamy sands have relatively smaller strength because these soils aren’t well aggregated. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <h3> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                 </span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">7.2 <u>Importance of soil strength <o:p></o:p></u></span></h3> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><u><br /></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                               1) Germination of seeds<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                               2) Plant growth<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Good aeration and well-drained of soils are essential for the germination of seeds and the growth of plants.</span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20pt;"><br /></span> <br /> <h3> <span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">        </span><span style="font-size: 20pt;">7.3 </span><u style="font-size: 20pt;">Human effects on soil strength</u></h3> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 143.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Soil management practices for agriculture are affected by soil strength badly. Compacted soil horizons called Ap or E are formed due to the using of heavy machines for tillage practices. Compacted soils have usually higher strength, therefore, the growth of plants and The germination of seeds is restricted.</span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span> <br /> <h3 style="text-indent: 0px;"> <span style="font-size: 18.6667px; text-indent: 0.5in;">          </span><span style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">7.4 </span><u style="font-size: 20pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">Measuring of soil strength penetrometers</u></h3> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvqhIqOO9fH5InkgpQSysyhgI3VZ8Sb8QxlcB9bdLzy-ze2vZsJNwi0z0a2gF7bxS_mQtBwRTPH4LLM_NBE5oUHjEuHsvG202B_3QtCTzT4bhyphenhyphenQJbwzMtYp_M3eOPAU0nGqPaNjDFOLPDt/s1600/measuring.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvqhIqOO9fH5InkgpQSysyhgI3VZ8Sb8QxlcB9bdLzy-ze2vZsJNwi0z0a2gF7bxS_mQtBwRTPH4LLM_NBE5oUHjEuHsvG202B_3QtCTzT4bhyphenhyphenQJbwzMtYp_M3eOPAU0nGqPaNjDFOLPDt/s320/measuring.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; tab-stops: 143.25pt; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                Penetrometers are used to measure soil strength. A rod is entered into the soil by inserting force that the required force is used to measure the soil strength.  Therefore we can recognize the affection of compaction soils to the growth of plant and germination of seeds by resistance to the exert of a rod into the soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Soil strength

Soil strength is defined as the amount of force required to move or rearrange soil particles. 7.1 Factors affecting soil strength (1) Moisture content                    When soils are saturated or wa…

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Soil porosity

<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                          Soil porosity is the total amount of pore spaces that are not occupied by solid particles. The shape and arrangement of soil particles help determine porosity. Sand has a relatively lower porosity than silt and clay.</span><br /> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4TxvVJ77u5pub8DnLVrF4-HuavxVxWf8Q71lak9t-ND-pMnBG9WW9rHNp3BuUhU3bC81aRCvLuc1onxOu6BNfIWbknvTQIc4Yat70Nqfc0lf-RDDjv2BC4KXiHdhIo4_YvmafplOY0vzI/s1600/marcro.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4TxvVJ77u5pub8DnLVrF4-HuavxVxWf8Q71lak9t-ND-pMnBG9WW9rHNp3BuUhU3bC81aRCvLuc1onxOu6BNfIWbknvTQIc4Yat70Nqfc0lf-RDDjv2BC4KXiHdhIo4_YvmafplOY0vzI/s320/marcro.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOpVU-YnFYlm05l4dgzpJfsEtpUu3nm5WWqDu_Vgd2IhnJoMA2GvrIgEaFFcoARkZrp7ljrkC2s7_jvfd_AgQ9ubbG_u2qHocN6V2Ekx_HM68n48nE1IAQLWad8BWk7PlsqygbeyvjyXg6/s1600/porosity.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOpVU-YnFYlm05l4dgzpJfsEtpUu3nm5WWqDu_Vgd2IhnJoMA2GvrIgEaFFcoARkZrp7ljrkC2s7_jvfd_AgQ9ubbG_u2qHocN6V2Ekx_HM68n48nE1IAQLWad8BWk7PlsqygbeyvjyXg6/s1600/porosity.png" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Porosity Ranges for soil particles </span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Type of soil              </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Porosity%</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" hspace="0" vspace="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" style="padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 9.0pt; padding-right: 9.0pt; padding-top: 0in;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                 well sorted<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                         sand or <o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 26.6666660308838px; line-height: 30.6666660308838px;">gravel</span></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">            </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">25-50</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div> <table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" hspace="0" vspace="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td align="left" style="padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 9.0pt; padding-right: 9.0pt; padding-top: 0in;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                Sand mixed with gravel<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;">         <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">20-35</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Silt                                </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">35-50</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Clay                               33-60</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Although clay particles have smaller pores than sands clay have relatively larger soil particles.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  <span style="color: red;">Therefore the diameter size of the grain does not affect the porosity <o:p></o:p></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: red; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Because sandy soils are not well aggregated together so sandy soils have relatively less amount of lager size pores. Therefore sandy soils have relatively lower porosity. Clay soils are well aggregated together by binding agents and also have macrospores between aggregates and microspores within aggregates. Therefore clay soils have relatively larger porosity.</span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

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Soil porosity

                          Soil porosity is the total amount of pore spaces that are not occupied by solid particles. The shape and arrangement of soil particles help determine porosity. Sand has a rel…

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Nitrogen in soil

<u> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forms of nitrogen in the soil</span></u><br /> <br />     <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Nitrogen is another important property in the soil. It is one of the primary nutrients that is essential to living, grow and reproduce for plants. Nitrogen in soil has two forms as organic nitrogen and inorganic nitrogen.</span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                      Most of the nitrogen in the soil is found in organic material in the soil. The organism in the soil like plants, animals, and microorganism has lots of compounds that are rich in organic matter. Their wastes and dead bodies are accumulated in the soil. Organic nitrogen can be found in amino acid (20-50%), hexamine (5-10%) and amino sugar (1%) in their cells. This nitrogen is available for plants only after decomposition by soil microorganisms.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                    Inorganic nitrogen is accumulated in soil by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by soil microorganisms in the soil. The small amount of inorganic nitrogen is produced during thunderstorms by lighting as NO-</span><span style="font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">These NO-</span><span style="font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> are reached to the soil by dissolving in precipitation as nitric acid.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <u><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The soil nitrogen cycle</span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <u><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp8wEMmh-yN6PTfHPzwmN1ClUuOl3L6xFCrwpQNXpETusshsf-rc0Uib8twYvb7rX24S3fyyR1jq4WLmLBdH2-CqscsWn6zdGiRKM4lflNgrM_hU5fctQDfr8J4TfnV1rjZ_VkGPFcd0F-/s1600/rounds.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp8wEMmh-yN6PTfHPzwmN1ClUuOl3L6xFCrwpQNXpETusshsf-rc0Uib8twYvb7rX24S3fyyR1jq4WLmLBdH2-CqscsWn6zdGiRKM4lflNgrM_hU5fctQDfr8J4TfnV1rjZ_VkGPFcd0F-/s320/rounds.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <u><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> <u><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 141.1pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Degradation of the organic matter will result in the release of ammonium and nitrate nitrogen, a process called mineralization. Inorganic nitrogen is added to soil after fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and organic nitrogen by soil microorganisms.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 141.1pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                   Mineralization of nitrogen can be divided into two chemical reactions. They are ammonification and ammonium hydrolysis.        Ammonification is a transformation of organic nitrogen to ammonia.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 141.1pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">R−NH2+H2O→NH3+R−OH+energy<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 141.1pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ammonium hydrolysis is a transformation of ammonia to ammonium by reacting with water molecules. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 141.1pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NH3+H2O→NH4++OH−<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 141.1pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                Ammonium is rapidly converted into nitrate at a high concentration of oxygen called nitrification.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ammonium is unstable under aerobic conditions. Nitrification is also divided into two chemical reactions.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ammonium is transformed into nitrite in the first step. Nitrosomonas are one of the transforming bacteria of ammonium to nitrate under aerobic conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                2NH4++3O2 →2NO-2 +2H2O+4H+<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 48.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oxidation of nitrite is transformed into nitrate by Nitrobacter under the aerobic condition at the second step.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 48.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2NO2− +O2 →2NO3<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 102.7pt;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; tab-stops: 48.0pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">NO-3 is relatively highly soluble in water that can be absorbed by roots of plants more easily.NO-3 can be easily leached through the soil due to the solubility. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Nitrogen in soil

Forms of nitrogen in the soil     Nitrogen is another important property in the soil. It is one of the primary nutrients that is essential to living, grow and reproduce for plants. Nitrogen in soil h…

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Soil Structure and Importance

<br /> <div style="text-align: left;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5070745661919414718" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 36pt; line-height: 115%;">                 Soil structure</span><span style="background: black; border: 1pt none black; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 36pt; line-height: 115%; padding: 0in;"> </span></div> <div style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 36pt; line-height: 115%;">                 </span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLiCNVCaz_kAZzgZr8-861yv61QV5OO6CWxjMbcpUBOHalbib72KGGvP-1Qh5lCuD4KTTXB0X-x-BOgD-d-hegHWObbOnLDSriweDdniZ8IWd_j_ZqtUOn0y6EFTf_Gzj8x6PDvP7B5jTY/s1600/structer.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLiCNVCaz_kAZzgZr8-861yv61QV5OO6CWxjMbcpUBOHalbib72KGGvP-1Qh5lCuD4KTTXB0X-x-BOgD-d-hegHWObbOnLDSriweDdniZ8IWd_j_ZqtUOn0y6EFTf_Gzj8x6PDvP7B5jTY/s320/structer.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil structure is an arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt, clay) into large units called aggregates. Soils are aggregated together by binding agents such as organic matter, clay, caco3, iron oxides and biological factors such as hyphae.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                   Naturally formed aggregate are called peds. Aggregates are also formed artificially during plowing or digging. They are called clouds.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Peds are considered as the soil structural unit. Peds has a distinct shape. There are well-defined planes of weakness between the aggregates.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                  Soil structure is created by combing several peds together.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgol9Kmh19gj79gd9MmhvcM06mFP5Rx5qxO9lxdnbHx-Jr782mWqf10b8yslcCKLz8a5n0RVrHyktt6umHG-zcCoLa_FXvorA08FtBVFDIOS6lSfssoJLV4QXTCLJBIFagNQ9MYXA5HF46X/s1600/particels.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgol9Kmh19gj79gd9MmhvcM06mFP5Rx5qxO9lxdnbHx-Jr782mWqf10b8yslcCKLz8a5n0RVrHyktt6umHG-zcCoLa_FXvorA08FtBVFDIOS6lSfssoJLV4QXTCLJBIFagNQ9MYXA5HF46X/s320/particels.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                       Different types of peds can be found in soil.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        </span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Aggregation of soils<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil particles may be present either as single individual grains or as aggregate. When a group of particles bound together into granules or compound particles. These granules or compound particles are known as secondary particles. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                        </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A majority of particles in a sandy or silt soil are present as single individual grains while in clayey soil they are present in granulated condition.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                     The individual particles are usually solid, while the aggregates are not solid but they possess a porous or spongy character.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjscJdrWs0wtuocHFL-6U5uHQwH4SQyjcf5uS0XPj4wa39shnZIZ2Cd_Vo3CncekVNdWUCJfu14HzgRrK0rAdoaptY9xa0521YC5YzyFtNziYVgx1PIz3bHIsLdBWCTTBHi9qm3YPSNq6XN/s1600/micro.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="140" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjscJdrWs0wtuocHFL-6U5uHQwH4SQyjcf5uS0XPj4wa39shnZIZ2Cd_Vo3CncekVNdWUCJfu14HzgRrK0rAdoaptY9xa0521YC5YzyFtNziYVgx1PIz3bHIsLdBWCTTBHi9qm3YPSNq6XN/s200/micro.gif" width="200" /></a></div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7rROBLXbRizXR8rtYNvwapvCo6khErsXmasdm4kyAvKvzMYCSRrjXuBCO9AquA4JrDn8mHMuV9kScfnwYYuBw3uGSGKl6m-TQzvjLTyMUhewScTWI6k7SoPyyZe0VRtcbaJUB_n_xOcIQ/s1600/samllSpaces.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7rROBLXbRizXR8rtYNvwapvCo6khErsXmasdm4kyAvKvzMYCSRrjXuBCO9AquA4JrDn8mHMuV9kScfnwYYuBw3uGSGKl6m-TQzvjLTyMUhewScTWI6k7SoPyyZe0VRtcbaJUB_n_xOcIQ/s200/samllSpaces.gif" width="200" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5070745661919414718" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5070745661919414718" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sand consists of only macrospores which are between aggregates but clay soils have macrospores between aggregates and microspores within the aggregates.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.2in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Degree of water movement </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQGwwKYe4B5CppErgPmf8mzlLH5BpI0k_0C0mTc2qPF_JVbiFnPsLO3Ljl1p-_khw6C-relPvmpERUIfUsh1MZ5wrwGVeYmWXUljnwvyLB6srB7Ea5LtJwO4ZtKYIoD-Q5MYX5aaLy0Rl0/s1600/water.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQGwwKYe4B5CppErgPmf8mzlLH5BpI0k_0C0mTc2qPF_JVbiFnPsLO3Ljl1p-_khw6C-relPvmpERUIfUsh1MZ5wrwGVeYmWXUljnwvyLB6srB7Ea5LtJwO4ZtKYIoD-Q5MYX5aaLy0Rl0/s320/water.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">   Soil structure affects water movement. Soil structure affects how quickly water moves through the soil. Water moves quickly through soils with many small grains. Soil with larger aggregates in the form of blocks or prismatic have moderate drainage.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Single grain, Granular >Blocky, Prismatic>Platy, massive<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.0in;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">              <u>Factors affecting soil structure<o:p></o:p></u></span><br /> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">    1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kind of clay (With increasing of amount of clay, soil particles are well aggregated.) <o:p></o:p></span></div> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><br /> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">    2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amount of organic matter(When soil has a high amount of organic matter, soils are well-bounded together and increase pore spaces )<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZHQ0Wf7S9GTn_x47rLk_PkdUWruxqRcbc6xs27Q2fuKFTS5vfzSsBS8R7uSYtx4HklQTyMfxB3ltmtMG9DOdLgFLCt-3pcZXpNgMoMu0RGz2v17iYpJxbPFOlNupTv09ZL0XwpnBhzrNF/s1600/factors.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZHQ0Wf7S9GTn_x47rLk_PkdUWruxqRcbc6xs27Q2fuKFTS5vfzSsBS8R7uSYtx4HklQTyMfxB3ltmtMG9DOdLgFLCt-3pcZXpNgMoMu0RGz2v17iYpJxbPFOlNupTv09ZL0XwpnBhzrNF/s1600/factors.gif" /></a></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> </div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">   1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Freezing and thawing (Freezing and thawing effects on soil formation. When parent material is frozen and thawed regularly, new minerals are formed therefore soil profile is developed) <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">    2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wetting and drying (With wetting of soil, soils are relatively well aggregated. With the drying of soil, soils are relatively less aggregated)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">    3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The action of burrowing organisms (Soil the structure is always changed with burrowing animals. They mix soils. Lower layers are taken onto the surface. Soils are well aerated because soils are opened to the external environment. Stability of soil aggregates is also increased)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: .25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Growth of root systems of plants (With the growth of roots systems of the plant, soil particles are bonded together very strongly) <o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiv8piedMr6YY79O-hvNqLTlqpPVhVpSOYXYQoz_oEpgCjhrHfW2_7tDagjF7idgpIvub2sm-CLUMDuNxqjOIF8mV2QuBTo-gpoHKH7LouE3yGDxmjpfGkCaGPIj696wXFIOLZJokLCxvjB/s1600/strucher.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="199" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiv8piedMr6YY79O-hvNqLTlqpPVhVpSOYXYQoz_oEpgCjhrHfW2_7tDagjF7idgpIvub2sm-CLUMDuNxqjOIF8mV2QuBTo-gpoHKH7LouE3yGDxmjpfGkCaGPIj696wXFIOLZJokLCxvjB/s320/strucher.gif" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Importance of Soil Structure<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Influences many important soil properties:</span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 103.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">infiltration rate<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 103.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">water retention<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 103.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">aeration                             amount of pores  are affected <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 103.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">drainage                           <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               5)  Germination of seeds-When soil has relatively loose soil structure and a considerable amount of pores which are contained the optimum level of water and air, it is very suitable for germination.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">               6) Soil erosion-When stability of soil aggregates are relatively weaker, soil particles are tended to detach from the surface.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">    Stable soil aggregation is a very valuable property of productive soil. Yet, the stability of soil aggregation is very reliant on the type of minerals present in the soil. Certain clay minerals form very stable aggregates, while other clay minerals form weak aggregates that fall apart very easily.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Highly weathered silicate clay, oxides, and amorphous volcanic materials tend to form the most stable aggregates. The presence of organic matter with these materials improves stable aggregate formation. In nutrient management, aggregate stability is important because well-aggregated minerals are well-drained and quite workable.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">In contrast, less weathered silicate clay, such as montmorillonite, form weak aggregates. Some silicate clay is said to have shrinks well potential. This means that the soil minerals expand or swell, when wet, causing the soil to become sticky and drain poorly</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">      </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">    </span></div> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> </div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>

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Soil Structure and Importance

                 Soil structure                   Soil structure is an arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt, clay) into large units called aggregates. Soils are aggregated together by binding a…

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Physical properties

<br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"> <span style="color: #38761d; font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">      <span style="font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Soil color</span></span><span style="color: #93c47d; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.6in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil color can be determined more easily by our eyes. We can recognize important factors of soil environment by using soil color as an indicator.<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnz1ewpT9zx5_C7GWB6YUFd1aTj2fZsChgr4HL1XfYs6PWzx-lAniirRjlJ2M_bsW742Dz23_sRvdMl4ifmI4PVxJsxRci6lt_x1hMVWtLSvfOw2AdQoz1cQOO6PLr4wFGjwJR5COl1GOS/s1600/sandsiltsalt.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="145" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnz1ewpT9zx5_C7GWB6YUFd1aTj2fZsChgr4HL1XfYs6PWzx-lAniirRjlJ2M_bsW742Dz23_sRvdMl4ifmI4PVxJsxRci6lt_x1hMVWtLSvfOw2AdQoz1cQOO6PLr4wFGjwJR5COl1GOS/s320/sandsiltsalt.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span><br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil color is also affected by different factors.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">(1) <u>Parent material<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 24pt; line-height: 115%;">          </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Chemical The composition of parent material influences the color of the soil.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: When the parent material consists of relatively more sand particles or it has a light color, it forms light color soil. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) <u>Organic matter<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 24pt; line-height: 115%;">          </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">The amount and state of organic matter also affect soil color. Before decomposition of organic matter, it shows brown color. After decomposition, the organic matter becomes hums, it shows black color.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 0in;">(3)</span><u style="text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The nature and abundance of iron</span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u style="text-indent: 0in;"><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;">  </span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Iron oxide in the soil is affected by soil color.  Iron oxide in the soil is influenced by the amount of moisture and air in the soil.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: When the soil has average moisture and air, the soil consists of yellow color iron oxide therefore soil shows a yellow color.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     When soil is well drained or under dry conditions, the soil consists of red color oxides, therefore soil shows red color.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">     When soil is lack of air by logging of water, the soil consists of grey or blushing grey color oxides, therefore, soil shows A grey color or blushing color.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri;">(4) </span><!--[endif]--><u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Moisture content/drainage<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">            Soil color also depends on moisture content in the soil. Well, drained soil shows bright and uniform colors.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;"> </div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Poorly drained soil shows grey colors.</span><span style="font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><u>Significance of soil color<o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Agriculture: the white color of soil has less fertility</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Unmottled soil subsoils have good</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">  </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">aeration</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt;">Constructions: Grey color soil is poorly drained therefore these soil are not suitable for buildings.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> </div> </div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: 0in;"> <u><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Physical properties

      Soil color Soil color can be determined more easily by our eyes. We can recognize important factors of soil environment by using soil color as an indicator. Soil color is also affected by diffe…

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Physical properties

<br /> <div> <b>First Part.</b></div> <div> <br /></div> <br /> <div class="ListParagraph1" style="margin-left: 157.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.75in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">      (1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil water<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div> </div> <br /> <div>                                 <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieJDUQ8YNQR8hVoI7khQ2tvckFcHPluUbLDs-Iu0BOHNmqXUZuPoDicuEJLZNAZnjlaGup-gRGsmbpN2UI3M894O-VOZMU5teFPd_EFCqbhBr3MRTrc8xlF5WCgU5a0segTfzEKQwo1iIr/s1600/water.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="183" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieJDUQ8YNQR8hVoI7khQ2tvckFcHPluUbLDs-Iu0BOHNmqXUZuPoDicuEJLZNAZnjlaGup-gRGsmbpN2UI3M894O-VOZMU5teFPd_EFCqbhBr3MRTrc8xlF5WCgU5a0segTfzEKQwo1iIr/s320/water.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <br /></div> <div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hygroscopic water</span></u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- Reaming water strongly adheres to soil particles. Roots of plants can’t absorb this water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Capillary water</span></u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">- Water retains between pore spaces in soil. Pore spaces of soil aren’t still saturated totally. This water is available for roots.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Gravitational water</span></u><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">-Water drains through the soil because pore spaces of soil are totally saturated by water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Amount of water in soil vary as follow: Gravitational water> capillary water> hygroscopic water<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: .15pt; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Field capacity</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">–water held in the soil after complete wetting followed by free drainage<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: .15pt; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"> <b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wilting point</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">–water that is held too tightly for plants to absorb the </span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">difference between field capacity and wilting point 100% of field capacity –optimal </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">75% of field capacity –enough for irrigation 50% or less of field capacity - </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Doesn’t</span><span style="font-family: "simsun"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">enough for irrigation. Soil water content can be measured by using two methods.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: .15pt; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil water content (by weight)</span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵm = Mw /<u> </u>Ms<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵm- soil water content<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mw- a mass of water evaporated (≥24hours @105</span><span style="color: #0c0c0c; font-family: "angsana new" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">º</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">C)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.5in;"> </div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Ms-mass of dry soil</span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">(2)Soil water content (By volumetric)</span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <br /></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵv = Vw / Vs<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ɵv- volumetric water content<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Vw-volume of water<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> </div> <div class="ListParagraph1CxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 152.25pt;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Vs-volume of soil sample<o:p></o:p></span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: .15pt; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: .15pt; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 10.0pt; margin-left: 101.65pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .15pt; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> </div>

Physical properties

First Part.       (1)        Soil water                                 Hygroscopic water- Reaming water strongly adheres to soil particles. Roots of plants can’t absorb this water. Capillary water-…

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Soil can be classified into biological, chemical and Physical properties.

<br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20pt;">  Biological properties</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">      </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">             1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Air</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">             2.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Water</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">             3. </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">  </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">Nutrients</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">  </span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">Physical properties</span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      </span><br /> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Structure<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">(Granular, blocky, Prismatic, columnar, Platy, Massive, single Grained)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Density (Particle density, Bulk density)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Permeability<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Temperature<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Texture (Sand, silt, Clay)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Porosity<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">      8.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Constancy<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">  Chemical properties<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">    </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">        </span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">PH (Acidity, alkalinity)</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">           2</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">CEC (caption exchange capacity) </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">           3</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Nutrients (</span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Micro nutrients</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">, Macronutrients)</span></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <script> (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); ga('create', 'UA-65880709-1', 'auto'); ga('send', 'pageview'); </script>

Soil can be classified into biological, chemical and Physical properties.

  Biological properties                     1.     Air              2.    Water              3.   Nutrients   Physical properties              1.     Structure       2.     (Granular, blocky, Prismat…

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Introduction of soil

<br /> <h2 style="text-align: center;"> </h2> <h3> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #10253f; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1.0 </span><span style="color: #00b050; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">What’s soil?</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil is a life-supporting upper layer surface of the earth which is the basis of all </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">agriculture</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">. It contains minerals and gavel from the chemical and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">physical</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> weathering of</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> rocks, decaying organic matter </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(humus), microorganism, insects, nutrients, water, and air.</span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soils differ according to the area and are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">constantly</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> being formed and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">removed</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> by natural, animal and human activity.</span></span></div> <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2.0</span><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Major components of soils</span><br /> <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span> <br /> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody> <tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp-rjg0FIs5NfQRBNvc4o34HpmjXRpHX5rYN3OFe1vNNLtosMEPRsK5tA20AsC4jhQ5m0aCNbCJGws6LvNJG-R-VdxYqLkd3INLk2pbxSpX1nu6pcWct-9T79ZAatM4zSddBdsKIA6pbBP/s1600/major.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="173" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp-rjg0FIs5NfQRBNvc4o34HpmjXRpHX5rYN3OFe1vNNLtosMEPRsK5tA20AsC4jhQ5m0aCNbCJGws6LvNJG-R-VdxYqLkd3INLk2pbxSpX1nu6pcWct-9T79ZAatM4zSddBdsKIA6pbBP/s320/major.gif" width="320" /></a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil consist of four major components.<o:p></o:p></span></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 28pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(1) </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">inorganic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(minerals)-45%</span></span></div> </div> <div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(2) organic-5%</span></div> </div> <div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">(3) air-25%</span></div> </div> <div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   (4) water-25%</span></div> </div> <div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> </div> <span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">  </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Organic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> matter in the soil is added by decomposition</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> of dead bodies of </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">organisms</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">, urine, and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">faces</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Inorganic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> matter such as clay, sand and silt result</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> from rock weathering.</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">  Air and water are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">Storage</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> between pore spaces in soil. </span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Therefore topology, climate and bedrock can be influenced by soil’s components</span><br /> <span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span> <span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3.0 </span><span style="color: #002060; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil </span></span><span style="color: #002060; font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;">structure</span></span><br /> <span style="color: #002060; font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;"><br /></span></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNMxOSF68g6dUED_5J2Ne-rDDH6GnMDTIyIx9RGel3BrF1NqUftrE6TyCqXgz7cmsmDRWqFbB5rdMv4JdgpScNQxBS4wAHrYdjvPnEic_W0fGXv9mQweGpHWTfKvUl7C9IuR38gs2-f4oz/s1600/soil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNMxOSF68g6dUED_5J2Ne-rDDH6GnMDTIyIx9RGel3BrF1NqUftrE6TyCqXgz7cmsmDRWqFbB5rdMv4JdgpScNQxBS4wAHrYdjvPnEic_W0fGXv9mQweGpHWTfKvUl7C9IuR38gs2-f4oz/s1600/soil.jpg" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Soil</span><span style="color: #7030a0; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">particles </span><span style="color: #7030a0; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">have the arrangement. The soil particles are </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">bounded</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> together into aggregates by binding </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">agents</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> such as </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">organic</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> matter, clay, CaCO3 and ion oxide and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">biological</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> agents such as a fungal </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">hyphen</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">. While </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">aggregate</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> is from </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">naturally</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> called “peds” and </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">artificially</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> “Clods”.</span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4.0 </span><span style="color: #ce02b1; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil </span><span style="color: #ce02b1; font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;">profile</span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIFzdAA9NyEmXkRal9VwwtLUw08WSp7FI8bTeb6qiTi_zM5W9QXD5soO5jZ4dlvqq7AQL0TguWCl-iAfcbOlSgUvp3p7Fkm0tm1ngneo1kAx-LJcX3cVONlLZhMfvDMTdKW6I5kA3wji9s/s1600/profile.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIFzdAA9NyEmXkRal9VwwtLUw08WSp7FI8bTeb6qiTi_zM5W9QXD5soO5jZ4dlvqq7AQL0TguWCl-iAfcbOlSgUvp3p7Fkm0tm1ngneo1kAx-LJcX3cVONlLZhMfvDMTdKW6I5kA3wji9s/s320/profile.png" width="256" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">   Soil a profile is vertical cross-section from the surface down to bedrock(parent </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">martial</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">). The soil profile is </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">usually</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">divided</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> into few </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">layers</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> called “horizons”. The master soil horizons and layers are represented by capital letters such as 0, A, E, B, C and R. Some of the above layers may be absent in some soil profiles.</span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">O horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The top layer of soil, it </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">consists</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> of decomposed organic matter such as humus and litter of leaves. Therefore the layer has usually black in </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">color</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">A horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The horizon has more organic </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">content</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> than other </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">lower</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> horizons so it can be identified darker than </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">lower</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> horizons.The horizon can be considered as the most active </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">biological</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> layer because soil horizons fungi,earth warms and microorganisms such as bacteria</span></span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">live there.  Germination of seeds has occurred</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> in this layer. Roots of </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">plants</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> well developed in this layer.</span></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">E horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="font-weight: normal;">The la</span></span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">yer has a wight </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">color</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">. It can be found between the A and B </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">horizons</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">. During this leaching, </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">clay's</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">, oxides and carbonate minerals that have been washed from the upper part of the profile accumulate in the below layer known as the B horizon.</span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">B horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The layer is defined as subsoil. The layer is </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">cindered</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> as most active weathering because It has a large accumulation of minerals, silt, and clay </span><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">which</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> are leached from upper layers such as 0, A and E.</span></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">C horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The layer is unconsolidated but has been relatively unaffected by soil-forming processes.</span></span><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d; mso-no-proof: yes; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themetint: 242;">C horizon is called the regolith.</span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0070c0; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">R horizon</span><span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <span style="font-weight: normal;">The layer is considered as the deepest layer of the soil profile. It hasn’t any rocks or boulders.  Continuous bedrock is only present in this layer. The </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 18.6666660308838px; line-height: 21.4666652679443px;">color</span><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> of the layer is similar to bedrock in the layer.</span></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="color: #0d0d0d;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #7030a0; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5.0 </span><span style="color: #943634;"><span style="font-size: 26.6666660308838px; line-height: 30.6666641235352px;">Roles</span><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"> of soil<o:p></o:p></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #943634;"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Medium for plant growth<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Regular of water supplies<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Regular of raw materials<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Modifier of the atmosphere<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Habitat for organisms<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> </div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #0d0d0d; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Act as an engineering medium<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="color: #943634; font-size: 20.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;"> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <div style="text-align: left;"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-size: 18.7199993133545px; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> </div> </div> </h3> <span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 36.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span>

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Introduction of soil

1.0 What’s soil? Soil is a life-supporting upper layer surface of the earth which is the basis of all agriculture. It contains minerals and gavel from the chemical and physical weathering of rocks, d…

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