Basal convention

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_7SZqkudparLKY6bZd_CNyWN6bE8PN4fWvilsadKb_pj4pXSfTBVubyRHpEX33yCBjX1tEktnQCFV3cedqcQTAINCvD4X8ilEFcKN1COkAmmy4_r4-iTbxGFzYdsYYgztKfzLX8yzEZum/s1600/fdf.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="291" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_7SZqkudparLKY6bZd_CNyWN6bE8PN4fWvilsadKb_pj4pXSfTBVubyRHpEX33yCBjX1tEktnQCFV3cedqcQTAINCvD4X8ilEFcKN1COkAmmy4_r4-iTbxGFzYdsYYgztKfzLX8yzEZum/s320/fdf.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Basal convention is based on the trasnboundry movement of the hazardous wastes and their disposal.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">History:</span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">  The strict regulations in the developed country guided them to dispose and recycle their hazardous waste in an environmentally friendly safe manner.  Due to the highest capital and operational cost, the hazardous waste was transported to developing and least developing countries where the regulations on hazardous waste disposal were not much strong. Earlier well developed countries considered developing countries as their dump sites. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Khian sea waste disposal incident<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The khian sea cargo ship which was registered in Liberia carried incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in United States. They subcontracted to dump the ash in Bahamas. However Bahamas refused to accept the ash. Many regions of the world refuse the ash. Half of its load was dumped in a beach in Haiti before being forced away.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <u><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Koko in Nigeria- 1988<o:p></o:p></span></u></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Italian Company had obtained an import permit for disposal of no explosive, non-radioactive and non-self-combusting material. But the ships actually transported massive sludge, slurry and carcinogen. Five ships carried eight thousand barrel of hazardous waste from Italy to the small town of Koko in Nigeria. Nigerian businessman, Sunday Nana  a</span> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">signed an illegal agreement with Italian businessmen Gianfranco Raffaeli and Renato Pent, of the waste broker firms Ecomar and Jelly Wax respectively. Italian companies were agreed to paid to use above Nigerian’s property for storage of 18,000 drums of hazardous waste with a payment of $100 a month. Due to the disaster come from the drums contain hazardous chemical drums, 13 people were dead and children were sick after five years of storage. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Basal convention was designed with following there <b>aims</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The reaction of hazardous waste generation<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Restriction of trasnboundry movement of hazardous waste<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Regulatory system for trasnboundry movement of hazardous waste<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Basal convention was adopted in 1989. It was come into force in 1992.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Parties</span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: 182 states and the European Union were signed and ratified. Haiti and the United states have signed and yet not ratified. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Regulations</span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Article four describes the general obligations related to import and export of hazardous waste. Article five noted the designation of competent authorities and focal point for to facilitate the implementation of this Convention.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Seven annexes</span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> are documented under basal convention to regulate the trasnboundry movement of hazardous waste and their disposal. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">18 categories of wastes to be controlled were listed under annex one. The categories included clinical waste and wastes from the manufacture, formulation and use from pharmaceutical products, phytopharmaceuticals, organic solvents, inks, dyes, pigments, paints, lacquers, varnish, latex, plasticizers, and glues/adhesives, and Polychlorinated biphenyl. Waste having certain hazardous constitutions were also listed under annexes one.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Under annex two, categories of waste those require special consideration were listed including wastes collected from households and residues arising from the incineration of household wastes.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hazardous characteristic were listed under annex three including flammable, oxidizable , flammable solids  and organic peroxides. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dispose operations were listed under annex four. Section A encompasses all such disposal operations which are not led to possibility of recovery, recycling, reclamation, directs use or alternative use. Section B encompasses all such operations led to possibility of recovery, recycling, reclamation, directs use or alternative use.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Annex five A documented the information to be provided on notification. Annex five B documented the information to be provided on the movement document. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Under annex six, seven articles were documented for arbitration. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1998, Annexes VIII and IX were added to the Convention by the fourth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, to provide further elaboration as to the wastes regulated by the Convention as listed in Annexes I and III.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Annex eight listed the wastes that are characterized as hazardous under Article 1, paragraph 1 (a), of this Convention and their designation on this Annex does not preclude the use of Annex III to demonstrate that a waste is not hazardous.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">         </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Annex nine listed the waste that are not covered Article 1, paragraph 1 (a), of this Convention unless they contain Annex I material to an extent causing them to exhibit an Annex III characteristic.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Basal convention was not paid attention on the radioactive waste and waste drive from normal operation of ship.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Basal convention

Basal convention is based on the trasnboundry movement of the hazardous wastes and their disposal. History:   The strict regulation...

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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <b><span style="font-size: 28pt; line-height: 115%;">Sulfur Cycle and its Environmental Impacts<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><u><span style="font-size: 28.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sulfur is one of primary nutrients for both animal and plant life. It is component element that makes up some proteins, enzymes and vitamins. Sulfur accounts for 5 of dry weight of organisms. Plants take sulfur in the soluble form while animals depend on the sulfur containing plant and other animal materials.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After uptake of inorganic sulfur, it becomes organic sulfur in the plants and microorganisms. After decomposition of organic matter, sulfur compounds are converted again into inorganic sulfur or sulfur in cells of microorganisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sulfur is entered into the atmosphere as a result of both natural and anthropogenic process.  Volcanic eruptions, organic matter decomposition, forest fire and microbial activities are the natural process that helps to cycle sulfur. Fossil fuel burning and industrial activities release sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide in large scale into the environment. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The major reservoir pool of sulfur is ocean. Sulfur can be found in large concentration in as dissolved from or sediments forms. Gypsum and pyrite are the examples for sulfur bearing minerals. Leaching and rock sediments are the major sources that release sulfur into ocean. Oxidation number of sulfur varies from -2 to +6. But sulfate with oxidation number of +2 is most stable form of sulfur.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Main steps of sulfur cycle:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Conversion of organic sulfur into inorganic sulfur</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> (H</span><span style="font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2</span><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">S)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oxidation of element sulfur, thiosulfate and hydrogen sulfide into sulfate<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduction of sulfate into hydrogen sulfide</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Chemoorganotrophic anaerobic respiratory bacteria use non oxygen terminal electron acceptor at the end of their electron transport chain. They use sulfate as their terminal electron acceptor and reduce it into hydrogen sulfide. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sulfur assimilation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is the reduction of sulfate into organic sulfhydryl groups. The oxidation number of sulfur changes from +6 to -2.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sulfur dissimilation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: it is the reduction of organic sulfur containing substance into inorganic hydrogen sulfide. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide into element sulfur</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria perform photosynthesis to ATP synthesis. They use hydrogen sulfide as their electron donor. They reduce it into element sulfur.  <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sulfur compounds acts as the electron donors and electron acceptors for microorganisms</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. Anaerobic respiratory bacteria including <b><i>Thiobacuillus thioxidans</i></b> use element sulfur, thiosulfate or hydrogen sulfide as their substrate. They oxidize these sulfur compounds to run electron transport chains. They oxidize them into sulfate.  Theses sulfate dissolve and spread though the aquatic body. When sulfate reach into bottom where the anaerobic environmental condition exists anaerobic respiratory microorganisms use it as their terminal electron acceptor at their electron transport chain. They reduce sulfate into hydrogen sulfide. These hydrogen sulfide moves upward. Both green sulfur and purple sulfur bacteria which inhabit in the above layers of aquatic water body us use hydrogen sulfide as their electron donor in their photosynthesis. They oxidize hydrogen sulfide into element sulfur. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Effects of acidification of aquatic bodies</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: These sulfates make the environments extremely acidic. They dissolve minerals in the bottom of the aquatic bodies. Toxic metal ions including Al3+ release into the water. These toxic metal ions cause detrimental effects to some aquatic plants and animals. Acid dissolves the shells of aquatic animals including coelenterates, gastropods. Shell of eggs including fishes is dissolved by acids. pH below 5 does not allow fish eggs to hatch. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide is more beneficial</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> than oxidation of element sulfur into sulfate because oxidation of hydrogen sulfide from -2 to +6 release eight electrons while oxidation of element sulfur from 0 to +6 releases six electrons. So hydrogen sulfide can take more electrons for their electron transport chin and produce more ATP.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5VypNBu5Mh6frdlGCMdCY0WodT61t-wfAuaHRwRqcxvhRl9P9n2MTzxRcpJyb0AQahOeS0_uk8HGAJYzqQS3g5Fki2XXcjYqgtsJDPRbfmTDz2GpEe9GKl3vqzhBopxSdFTNgnayNetTA/s1600/image.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="304" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5VypNBu5Mh6frdlGCMdCY0WodT61t-wfAuaHRwRqcxvhRl9P9n2MTzxRcpJyb0AQahOeS0_uk8HGAJYzqQS3g5Fki2XXcjYqgtsJDPRbfmTDz2GpEe9GKl3vqzhBopxSdFTNgnayNetTA/s640/image.PNG" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <br />

Sulfur Cycle and its Environmental Impacts Sulfur is one of primary nutrients for both animal and plant life. It is component element t...

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Sewage Water Treatment Plant

<div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sewage is the combination of both black water and grey water</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">. Black water carries wastewater that is released through the toilets including urine and excreta, kitchen and bathroom. Grey water carries wastewater from bathrooms and kitchen. Release of sewage into public sewer system is compulsory in the highly urbanize area. Release of sewage without proper treatment into surface water sources and ground water sources cause serve health, economic and environmental problems. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sources of sewage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Toilets, bathrooms and kitchen are the sources of releasing sewage. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Composition of sewage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: wastewater from toilets contains pathogens in large quantities.  Biodegradable organics (BOD) releases from both toilets and kitchens. It causes the depletion of oxygen in the water sources and affects the aquatic plant and animal life. Excessive amount of nutrients (N, P, K) also release through both toilets and kitchen. They are able to accelerate the growth of algae. The sudden increase of algal<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> growth is referred to as the eutrophication. Hot and cold water release through the kitchens and bathrooms. It affects the temperature stability of the aquatic bodies. Detergents releases through the cleaning of bathrooms and toilets.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sediments are another pollutant that reduces the light penetration through aquatic bodies.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Collection of the sewage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Later sewers collect sewage from individual houses into primary gully. Then sewage from primary gullies is flowed into secondary gullies by using branched sewers. Then according to the slope, sewage from all secondary gullies is drained along the road into the main gully.</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The main gullies are connected to the treatment plant via large sewer.  Here collection of the sewage is done by using gravity instead of pumping. Therefore sewers are constructed with slope. Thereby it reduces the cost of treatment of sewage.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZZTiwKqUonrD22yn_WUI3TztjQ6x7VN8ihu7QPc8frHzfyIWt497sIw9U7j9Ol1rM37GhWWuuXaZDTa-IbOZRYcKIJ_EQg5nQFlWWaq_yN66YZ8DuN8619pLWWSMnyWTr8frXxjwttQzT/s1600/sawege_plan.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZZTiwKqUonrD22yn_WUI3TztjQ6x7VN8ihu7QPc8frHzfyIWt497sIw9U7j9Ol1rM37GhWWuuXaZDTa-IbOZRYcKIJ_EQg5nQFlWWaq_yN66YZ8DuN8619pLWWSMnyWTr8frXxjwttQzT/s640/sawege_plan.PNG" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">The treatment process is operated as flowing diagram.</span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh414vqGLlvHgZSlPU3_69B4ZzB1sN2XZo6OX3IJO8RedDeVih0Xnv9PLCXGApUStNFZrYIXEf7NieQDzcw7PNU2hCEo0TWZts4gzQ6JxzGjDLV8YWob5auwWfsgK4plpjpEbxFJW0mpI5N/s1600/sawege_plan_02.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="398" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh414vqGLlvHgZSlPU3_69B4ZzB1sN2XZo6OX3IJO8RedDeVih0Xnv9PLCXGApUStNFZrYIXEf7NieQDzcw7PNU2hCEo0TWZts4gzQ6JxzGjDLV8YWob5auwWfsgK4plpjpEbxFJW0mpI5N/s640/sawege_plan_02.PNG" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Incoming sewage is passed through a metallic bar screen. It removes the large materials including sanitary napkins, grits, glass pieces and straws. Those are sent and disposed in the sanitary land fill.  Thereby it helps to protects the pumps and other equipment from wrapping or damage them.  <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sedimentation tank</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Then water is transferred into a sedimentation tank by using pump system. Here it is allowed water to settle down under gravity. Large floatable materials are collected at the bottom of the sedimentation tank. They are removed and directed to the central sludge treatment facility. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aeration tank</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Water is transferred into a tank with continuous aeration. Here biodegradable organics are removed by using digestion of aerobic respiratory bacteria. They oxidize organic matter completely into carbon dioxide and water without leaving any residues. . Retention time of wastewater is 4-8 hours in the aeration tank. The amount of sediments can be reduced by extending the retention time from 1-2 days. Mechanical aerators are employed for aeration. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Secondary clarifier</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Then wastewater is transferred into another settling tank. Here as microorganisms are higher than the available food, they tend to form flocs via attaching to each other. They settle down under gravity at the bottom of the settling tank. They are removed as the sludge. Part of the sludge is removed as the activated sludge. Rest is transferred into the central sludge treatment facilities to dispose in a proper manner. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Disinfection</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Chlorine, ozone and UV are the common method of disinfection. But chlorine is the economical viable method. Chorine solution is added drop wisely by using specialized machine. Excess chorine generates disinfection byproducts (dbp) including chloroform. They may cause serve health problems therefore excess chlorine have to be removed before discharge water into natural water bodies. Sodium metabisulfate is added to remove excess chorine. . But both ozone and UV do not leave resides that need to be removed before discharges. But use of ozone as a disinfection method is costly because ozone has to be produced in-site due to the instability. It requires highly specialized expensive equipment to generate ozone. Therefore use of UV is environmental friendly and cost effective. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Wetland system</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Even after primary and secondary treatment, wastewater still contains excess nutrients including phosphate and nitrate, sediments and non-degraded organic matter. If wastewater is released at this level of treatment, it may pollute the both groundwater table and surface water sources. So construction of artificial wetland is the economical viable method as a tertiary treatment. It removes pollutant from water via biological, physical and chemical methods. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reuse and disposal of treated wastewater: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After treatment, water can be reused within the plant. Flushing toilets and watering plants are done by using treated water. If water is not reused, it can be discharged into natural water bodies, after tastings for the national and international standards. COD, BOD and suspended solid are checked once every week. Parameters in the natural water bodies also tested recently. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sludge treatment</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Sludge collected from primary and secondary clarifier is transferred to a tank. It is similar to typical sedimentation tank in the design. Here sludge is settled down under gravity. So it increases the thickness of gravity. Then sludge is collected and directed into either anaerobic digester or drying bed. Sludge is degraded into carbon dioxide by using anaerobic respiratory bacteria. Then this carbon dioxide is reduced into methane which is combustible gas. Methane can be used for electricity generation or directly use in cookers.  In drying beds, sludge is filtered through a sand and gravel filter. Remaining liquid fraction is accumulated as the leachate at the bottom. The leachate is collected via pipe systems into central treatment facilities and treats. The liquid fraction of sludge is further reduced by using filtration, drying via sunlight and wind. The sludge is collected from the surface f the drying beds. It can be reused or disposed in sanitary land fill. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reuse and disposal of sludge</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Sludge can be used as a resource. Sludge is used for compost production. Plant materials are added to adjust the proper carbon to nitrogen ratio for microbial decomposition.  It can be applied as a soil conditioner and fertilizer. It as a fertilizer, it adds primary nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Thereby it increases the growth of plants. It as a soil conditioner, it improves the biological, chemical and physical properties. If sludge is not reused, it is needed to be disposed in a sanitary landfill because sludge contains the most of the worst materials of wastewater.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Sewage Water Treatment Plant

Sewage is the combination of both black water and grey water . Black water carries wastewater that is released through the toilets includin...

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Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKwr0KFKyJsAzuz53TrUVjvQURUq79vCoT4sZcpHGDi9XoKR53SjsSuHvRCp8v4dKPSDyrX07DwZMBntQCx4OVM0rgnkBkaT7z34hdPCPFUlGGwrLt0PUFcgma73w-4a3pHD2ZXL9YRRkO/s1600/img.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="456" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKwr0KFKyJsAzuz53TrUVjvQURUq79vCoT4sZcpHGDi9XoKR53SjsSuHvRCp8v4dKPSDyrX07DwZMBntQCx4OVM0rgnkBkaT7z34hdPCPFUlGGwrLt0PUFcgma73w-4a3pHD2ZXL9YRRkO/s640/img.jpg" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil erosion refers to as <b>the movement of soil particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process</b>. It occurs at relatively slow rate and its magnitude is unnoticed. Wind and water are the major two agents of natural soil erosion. Due to the anthropogenic activities, quality of the soil is degraded. Thereby soil makes more vulnerable to soil erosion. Continuous removal of topsoil from agricultural lands affects the crop yield and environment quality.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Driven factors of soil erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Deforestation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Cut down and remove of vegetation from land left bare soil.  It makes the soil more vulnerable to both wind and water erosion. Removal of vegetation directly affects the organic matter content in the soil. Due to the low organic matter availability, soil particles are not aggregated together. Fine soil particles of topsoil are more easily wash away or blown from the surface. Due to the absence of vegetation wind has the opportunity to directly contact the soil surface.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Overgrazing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Unregulated grazing of livestock reduces the thickness of the grass layer of pasture lands so it makes more vulnerable to erosion. Livestock press topsoil into the subsoil. It reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil. So it increases the runoff. Thereby it increases the amount of soil to move through the water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Tillage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Although tillage brings lots of advantages for agriculture, improper tillage practices cause negative consequences. Tillage buries topsoil and brings subsoil into the upper surface. It increases the surface area of soil exposed to wind and rain. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Construction of roads and other infrastructure: Soils has to be removed in large scale in road and railways constructions. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mining</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: gem mining and coal mining processes dig and remove a large portion of topsoil and subsoil from the land. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Water erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: runoff is able to dislodge the fine soil particles from the soil surface. It causes onsite effects and offsite effects. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Gully erosion: </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">As a result of the high flow of velocity, the deep channel is formed by the removal of soil and soft rocks. Riverbank is subjected to gully erosion due to the high velocity of river flow. After heavy rain, gully erosion also can be observed at the bottom of the sloppy area.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Sheet erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is the removal of the soil particles from the surface by a thin layer of water. It removes soil more uniformly over the surface. As it happens at a slow rate, it cannot be easily observed until a significant amount of topsoil is lost. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Rill erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: It forms well defined small channels over the surface as a result of strong surface runoff. It can be observed in steep land and lands with gradual sloping. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Wind erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is abraded, transports, and deposes of soil by the action of wind. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Onsite effects of erosion</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce crop yields</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: topsoil is the most fertile layer of soil that directly affects plant growth. It contains organic matter, nutrients, and microorganisms in large quantities. It is continuously replenished by litterfall, organic matter decomposition, nutrients cycling, and mineral weathering. After the loss of topsoil, subsoil falls to fulfill all nutrient requirements of the plant which results in a reduction of crop yelled. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce land stability</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Continuous removal of soil makes the land prepare for the landslides.it causes loss of people, ecosystem and properties. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Offsite effects: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Siltation of aquatic bodies</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Soils particles that are washed away from the land tend to deposit at the bottom of the lakes or streams. It reduces the water holding capacity of the aquatic body which increases the flood risk of the area. Soils deposit in the bottom vegetation. So it interferes with the breeding places and habitats.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Eutrophication:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> Excess nutrients including phosphates and nitrates bound soil particles to accelerate the growth of algae in the aquatic ecosystem. The sudden increase of algal growth refers to as the algal bloom. Some algal species produce toxic substances that are toxic to animal and plant life.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Aquatic pollution:</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"> The soil acts as itself pollution. Dissolved soil increases the turbidity which results in a reduction of light penetration through the aquatic bodies. Thereby the productivity of deep layers of aquatic bodies is reduced. In addition to nutrients, pesticides also attach to soil particles toxic to aquatic animals. They tend to accumulate through the food web and cause detrimental effects on the animals at the top levels. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: symbol; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Following actions are suggested to minimize the erosion by wind or water.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Mulching</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: organic mulches including fiber woods and straw, plastic and rubber mulching and geotextile material is used for agriculture to minimize soil erosion. It prevents the direct exposure of soils to winds. In addition to erosion protection, organic mulch protects the moisture content in the soil and improves the soil structure.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Avoid overgrazing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: it is allowed livestock to feed on pasture land till a certain limit to recover the vegetation again.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Add organic matter</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: Organic matter is able to glue small soil particles together to form large aggregates. So soils cannot be detached from the land. Compost can be added as the organic matter.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">Maintain vegetation cover</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">: The root systems of the plant helps to hold the soil particles in the places. They secrete glues which are helped to bind fine soil particles into large aggregates. Thereby they protect soils against water erosion. Thick vegetation cover prevents reduces wind velocity and does not allow it to contact the soil. Thereby it protects the soil against wind erosion.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">No-tillage or conservation tillage</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: -0.25in;">: Conservation tillage means to increase crop yield while taking actions to protect the soil against wind erosion and water erosion. Here tillage is not used from sawing to harvest or use minimum tillage.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>

Soil Erosion, Its Impacts and Conservation

Soil erosion refers to as the movement of soil particle form one place to another place. It is a natural process . It occurs at relativ...

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Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJGodkQ9eb6d71oliO5rY761UQkJ7M9ATvv_KybmFKyYtBfB6cr1IMWaKi4hYSde36WQrbNjKB7jytJySh3j5f3EpcWLcu5SZYPGnXGnFKPUXMq6QdsG_wCMiPFnkwb9A-4pDO5l9bpAyR/s1600/img.jpg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="524" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJGodkQ9eb6d71oliO5rY761UQkJ7M9ATvv_KybmFKyYtBfB6cr1IMWaKi4hYSde36WQrbNjKB7jytJySh3j5f3EpcWLcu5SZYPGnXGnFKPUXMq6QdsG_wCMiPFnkwb9A-4pDO5l9bpAyR/s640/img.jpg.png" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofertilizer refer to as <b>the use of living microorganisms to provide primary nutrients and increase the growth of plants</b>. </span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The microorganisms may inhabit in the rhizosphere or inner or surface plant tissues. In here, biochemical reactions of microorganisms are supported in the agriculture to increase the yield. They improve the nutrients availability to the plants. Due to the negative consequences of chemical fertilizers, the farmers tend to use biofertilizers for their crop production.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofertilizer are divided into three groups as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Phosphorous fertilizers: It is used to optimize the phosphors level in the soil. It does not depend on the crop to be grown.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nitrogen fertilizers: It is used to optimize nitrogen level in the soil. Since nitrogen requirements vary with the soil type, types of nitrogen fertilizer depend on the type of nitrogen fertilizers.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Organic fertilizers: the biodegradable organics including animal and plant waste is degraded by aerobic respiratory microorganisms. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The types of biofertilizers are discussed below. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nitrogen fixers</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Nitrogen is considered as a primary nutrient for plant. Even though the nitrogen accounts for 78% of atmosphere gas content, plant cannot absorb directly nitrogen from the atmosphere.  Nitrogen is released into soil trough decomposition of organic matter. Some microorganisms present in the soil are also able to fix atmospheric nitrogen.  <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Free living bacte</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">ria: they inhabit in the soil. They do not form mutual beneficial symbiotic relationship with plants roots.  Bacteria with different oxygen requirements are available to fix nitrogen. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span></i><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: Aerobic: <i>Azotobacter<o:p></o:p></i></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo2; mso-text-indent-alt: -9.0pt; text-indent: -2.0in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">                                                                                      </span>i.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">      </span></span></i><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Anaerobic: <i>Clostridium polymyxa <o:p></o:p></i></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbiotic fixers</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: They from mutual beneficial symbiotic relationship with roots of legumes. The plant tissues make nodules where the symbiotic bacteria inhabit. They fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. The ammonia is available when plant roots die or legume plants are buried directly as the cover crop.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.5in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">a.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">     </span></span></i><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: <i>Rhizobium<o:p></o:p></i></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Symbiotic cyanobacteria</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Cyanobacteria are one of the photosynthetic organisms. Some of them are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. They form symbiotic relationship with roots of plant including <i>Cycads, </i>liverworts and <i>Azolla</i>. In addition to nitrogen, they add organic matter to the soil through their photosynthesis. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: <i>Anabaena</i> and <i>Nostoc<o:p></o:p></i></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">         But among them<i> Azolla- Anabaena </i>relationship fixes more nitrogen compare to the legume plants so aquatic environments like rice fields use <i>Azolla- Anabaena</i> to increase the yield. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Phosphorous solubilizing bacteria</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Phosphorous is also essential nutrient for plant. Phosphorous availability for plant determines solubility and concentration of Phosphorous ions. It is in insoluble forms which is unable to absorb into plants. Inorganic Phosphorous is added to soil by weathering of parent rock. Organic Phosphorous is added to the soil by decomposition of organic matter. The Phosphorous solubilizing bacteria convert the insoluble Phosphorous into soluble Phosphorous which can be absorbed by plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ex: <i>Clostridium polymyxa, Bacillus, Enterobactor<o:p></o:p></i></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mycorrhizae</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Some fungi found in the soul form mutual beneficial symbiotic relationship with roots of higher plants. The formation of Mycorrhizae is an infection to the plants. Fungi spores germinate near the vicinity of the root zone. Fungal hyphae penetrate and develop into the cortex of the roots. They show filamentous growth on the root surface. The fungal hyphae from arbuscule which is finely divided hyphae. It acts as the nutrients exchange interface between plant and fungal hyphae.  Those fungi association help plants to absorb nutrients in large area while plant provides organic food for them. It helps to correct the phosphors level of plants. It absorbs phosphors from large area and makes them soluble for the plant absorption. In addition to phosphorous uptake, Mycorrhizae secrete growth hormones for plants which are able to accelerate the growth. They promote the symbiotic nitrogen associations. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use of Biofertilizer is more advantageous over chemical fertilizers as follows. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofertilizer are required in small quantity: small sized Inoculum of microorganisms is used to inoculate the seeds or plants surfaces. As the living microorganisms are used as the Biofertilizer, small number of microorganism can reproduce and form large colonies. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Increase yield: They are able to increase yield 15-30% by providing essential nutrients. Nutrients availability directly affects the yield. The increasing of yield also varies with type of biofertilizers because capability of different microorganism differs in the nutrients. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce pollution: The farmers tend to add chemical fertilizers in large quantities as they intend increase yield through increasing nutrients availability. But plants absorb nutrients till certain extent. Excess nutrients remain in the soil. They are washed away by runoff. It causes eutrophication in aquatic bodies. But biofertilizers such as</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Mycorrhizae are capable of absorbing phosphorus in large area so no need of excess chemical fertilizers to be added.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Improve soil structure: fungal hyphae help to bind small soil particles together into large aggregates. Thereby it increases the soil porosity. So water can more easily drained thorough the soil. It also increases the water holding capacity of the soil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture

Biofertilizer refer to as the use of living microorganisms to provide primary nutrients and increase the growth of plants .  The micr...

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Ecotourism and Its Environmental Impacts

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJlEnDbNSPRyQrv-96dLM1EgQrnhJklq0ZNoERia3pKwYpMgo9Wzy7bDwjX3HLwMhlNSoRjGpDrmrhzPeDjnI4kII952KBT9x3pRzytBI2pU5rgZuz5zhirCMbX9KxV6uAaUqbUhyWuVj7/s1600/img.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJlEnDbNSPRyQrv-96dLM1EgQrnhJklq0ZNoERia3pKwYpMgo9Wzy7bDwjX3HLwMhlNSoRjGpDrmrhzPeDjnI4kII952KBT9x3pRzytBI2pU5rgZuz5zhirCMbX9KxV6uAaUqbUhyWuVj7/s640/img.jpg" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ecotourism is “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people." <o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">                                                                        (TIES, 1990)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ecotourism is initiated with approaches to minimize the negative impacts of traditional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural interaction of local people with tourists.  The governments can increase the awareness of local people and gain support from them for conservation of regional natural resources. While conserving the nature, ecotourism provides good income for governments and rural people.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Principles of Ecotourism</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is based on conservation, communities, and sustainable travel.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 75.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Advantages of ecotourism can be discussed as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 75.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Environmental Conservation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Ecotourism help to conserve all types of ecosystems including forests, coral reefs and mangroves. The governments tend to preserve the existing natural ecosystems and reforestation of the deforested area. Tourists and local communities are encouraged to conserve ecosystems. The taxes based on tourism, enters fee and donation are directed as funding on conservation actions, reestablishments and recover the ecosystem damage due to the tourism. Most tourists interest and join voluntarily for the conservation programs including sea turtle conserving program. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Enhance the living standard of the local community</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: ecotourism give direct employment for the rural people. They can find their job opportunity from transport, tourist hotels, guidance, conservation programs and constructions. The rural people can start their self-employment without joining directly into the ecotourism. They can open stores and sell local delicious foods. Tourists prefer to buy clothes, juallary, music instruments and bags which are made from local materials. Infrastructure is developed to attract more tourists which are results in indirect the development in the rural area. The construction of roads, drinking water, electricity, health facilities improve the</span> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">living standards of rural communities. The volunteers in the groups of tourists are willing to help local people to improve their health and education. They may conduct educational programs and clinic. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although ecotourism provides lots of benefits it is also associated with some disadvantages due to the misbehavior of both tourists and local communities and poor management as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Habitat degradation and fragmentation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: construction of roads, accommodations and other infrastructures distrusts the habitats and ecosystems. The animals go through to roads are hit and killed by the vehicles carrying tourists. Construction may remove the vegetation that offers food, shelter and breeding places for native animal communities. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Threaten the animal biodiversity</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The tourists tend to hunt in natural forests and fish in the coral ecosystems. It may leads to overexploitation and threatens the native and endemic animal species. Thereby it reduces the local animal and plant diversity. The annoying actions including noising of tourists disturb the animal behavior. Most of the animals do not like to contact with people so that those kind animals tend to moves another suitable ecosystem where the human influence is still not a problem. The fire camps within forested areas disturb the pathways of nocturnal animals including elephants, lions and ant eaters. Wild animals tend eat the remaining of food thrown away by tourists. These foods may be wrapped in polythene bags which are accumulated and block the digestive tracks of animals including the elephants. They left over plastic water bottles, aluminum cans which are not easily biodegradable and remain within the wild environment and affect the existence of plant animal communities. The propeller cuts of boat hit and kill the animals live in the coral ecosystems. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Aquatic pollution</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Unregulated boat riding brings serious environmental problems. They increase the turbulence and reduce light penetration through increasing turbidity at the most of time. So it kills the plants and algal communities in bottom of the sea. The gases releases due to fossil fuel burning from boat are toxic to plant and animal communities. It has been damaged and killed the entire coral reef communities in most area of the world. Poorly maintained boats leak oil into water. These oil deposits in the feathers on the sea birds which make them unable to fly. Oil decreases the light penetration through the water. It reduce dissolving oxygen through the oil water interface.it disturbs natural temperature lowering and establishing mechanisms. Thereby it increases temperature of water. Oil pollution is extremely cost to remove by mechanical methods. Propeller of boat damages and cut the aquatic vegetation including sea grasses and seaweeds.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Soil disturbance</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Constructions of roads disturbs the soil. It left soil more vulnerable to wind and water erosion. Deposition of eroded soil in aquatic systems threats the aquatic animal and plant life. Use of vehicles for transporting tourists such as safari jeeps cause soil compaction in forested area which result in water logged condition because it reduces the infiltration capacity of soil.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction of alien invasive species</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: alien invasive species are unintentionally introduced trough the ecotourism. The vehicles that transporting tourists from urban areas to rural areas or long distance supports to introduction of alien invasive species into native areas. The vehicles that are used for construction purposes are another source of introduction of alien invasive species. The tourists transporting and recreational ships and boats also cause spread of alien invasive species in aquatic ecosystems. Recreational boats act as the major spreading agent of <b><i>Dreissena polymorpha</i></b> between lakes and rivers within Europe. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Forest resources exploitation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The large trees grown in the forests are fall down for constructing tourists’ hotels. Loss of trees directly affects the existence of the ecosystem as animal community interacts with them. Tress acts as a habitat for many animal species. Pollinators and seed dispersals directly depend on tree for their survival. Birds, animals and insects find their breeding places, nesting places in large trees. Some tourists tend extract forest resources illegally. Some collect bird eggs, small reptiles, butterflies and moths, resins from trees, fungal species and piece of corals.  They collect and bring them into their countries for genetic exploitation.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <br /></div> <br /> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">7)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Social impacts</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Young children in rural and coastal areas tend to leave the school and join to ecotourism to earn money. Tourism persuades small children and girls to employ as sex workers. Thereby HIV aids transmit from the foreign tourists to local people. Ecotourism create a way to transport drugs into local communities which lower the health and income of people.<o:p></o:p></span></div>

Ecotourism and Its Environmental Impacts

Ecotourism is “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people." ...

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First Generation Biofuels

<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJE695hYXDAz9meeuG41W50YKJC9X1mwuKG3-0cOvJrxwu_MsIBKfzjrjj5jX0hKuzRUVKkhy1rVGGlTOqmcIC7_mJ5Vo4rT2oJ2FBQeibMohD9zwk4NfE433kKem3xx-WLV_-LFt-lcMM/s1600/img.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="426" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJE695hYXDAz9meeuG41W50YKJC9X1mwuKG3-0cOvJrxwu_MsIBKfzjrjj5jX0hKuzRUVKkhy1rVGGlTOqmcIC7_mJ5Vo4rT2oJ2FBQeibMohD9zwk4NfE433kKem3xx-WLV_-LFt-lcMM/s640/img.jpg" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biofuels are introduced as the renewable energy resource. Biofuels are borne with high potential to minimize the greenhouse gas emission compare to the fossil fuels. <b>The feedstock is used for first generation biofuels production can be also used as the food crops</b>. Sun flower, <i>Jatropha</i>, soy bean, pram, sugar cane, wheat, sugar potato and beat are examples for plants that have been used. A part including seeds, fruits or whole food plant can be used for biofuel production. Bioalcohol, biodiesel, green diesel, biogas are produced as the first generation biofuels. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bioalcohol</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is produced from the sugar and starch rich food crops. Sugar is fermented into alcohol by microorganisms and enzymes. Bioalcohol includes methanol, ethanol and propanol.</span></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7AN3IZ6U5Hahq2PJLUcy2f_Y-wvoj8l-Ce16Gskopv5MJCNUn47iGD2HqaTgyf2jo7ir7BQvgvDP26hGOqAgv3K6XoKo9W-biN2qvhDi2rdORoaO7hf9C01CC9bksrfNNSJw_nA3X36pC/s1600/16832272_1727013927610473_5397295824119446341_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7AN3IZ6U5Hahq2PJLUcy2f_Y-wvoj8l-Ce16Gskopv5MJCNUn47iGD2HqaTgyf2jo7ir7BQvgvDP26hGOqAgv3K6XoKo9W-biN2qvhDi2rdORoaO7hf9C01CC9bksrfNNSJw_nA3X36pC/s640/16832272_1727013927610473_5397295824119446341_n.jpg" width="640" /></a></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Cereal grains are crushed to release starch. Then these starches are subjected to process called hydrolysis to convert the cellulosic biomass into fermentable sugar. Yeast is added and the solution is heated. Invertase acts as the catalyst and breaks down the sucrose into glucose and fructose. Then these glucose and fructose reacts with another catalyst, zymase to produce ethanol. Since the ethanol contain large fraction of water, the distillation process is used to remove water and increase the concentration of ethanol compare to the initial solution. The mixture of ethanol and water is heated. As the boiling point of ethanol is lower than the water, it is converted into vapor phase. Then ethanol is condensed and separated from the water. Ethanol can be used directly in the gasoline engines.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biodiesel</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: it is produced from the transesterification of alcohol and oil which is extracted from the crop plants.  A mixture of methanol or ethanol and biomass containing fatty acids are mixed and reacted together in the presence of NaOH as the catalyst. Biodiesel is similar in the composition to fossil diesel. Biodiesel are fatty acid methyl or ethyl esters. Animal flat, sun flower, soy bean, pram, vegetable oil, algae are used as the raw materials for biodiesel production. Biodiesel can be used in directly in petroleum engine of mixture of biodiesel and petroleum engine can be used.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Green diesel</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is produced by using refinery methods. Large molecules found in vegetable oil are break down into small hydrocarbon chains at elevated temperature and elevated pressure in the presence of catalysts. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Biogas</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: It is produced through the digestion of biomass in an anaerobic digester by anaerobic microorganisms. Whole crop plants or a part of the plant, residues of crop plant and residues of other biofuel production can be used as the feedstock for anaerobic director. Here biomass is converted into methane which combustible gas. It can be directly used in vehicle engines or cooking ovens. The residue form the anaerobic digester can be further processed and used as a biofuel or can be applied as a fertilizer for agriculture. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Use of first generation biofuel has advantages over fossil fuels as follows.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Greenhouse gas mitigation</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Biofuels are burned more cleanly than fossil fuels which result in leaving small quantity of greenhouse gas emission. Use of biodiesel in vehicle is able to reduce the greenhouse gas emission by 20-60%. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Renewable energy source</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Biofuels can be replenished within short time period. Fossil fuel is limited in the supply. It takes millions of years to generate fossil fuel to generate in the underground. So fossil fuel cannot replenish within short time period. Therefore biofuels are one of the best solutions for limited fossil fuels. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Provide employment for rural communities</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Preparation of land, sawing, harvesting and processing of biofuels give opportunity form rural people to earn considerable income. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Economic security</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The countries where the fossils fuels were not generated as a natural resources have to export crude oils and other associated products from Middle East countries. So these countries have to pay extremely high prices for purchase crude oil and transport them into their country. The processing crude oil into fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline is also costly. Therefore as countries can grow crops for biofuel production within their countries, it saves money of them. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">        </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Although biofuels are renewable energy source, it also has certain negative consequences on society, environment and economic as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Threat to food security</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: The use of food crops for biofuel generation cause the increase of the price of food and animal feed. The lands available for agriculture and fertilizers are used for the growing crops for biofuels. Thereby it reduces the agricultural production in the world. The world food supply is restricted for the developed countered for their consumption and biofuel production while poor country surfing from long time starving.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">High production cost</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: More money has to be pumped into preparation of lands, planting crops, application of fertilizers and pesticides, harvestings and processing.it can be manual or mechanical. The use of machines is more effective and cheap even though its capital cost is high. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Contribution to greenhouse gas emission is considerable</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Even though the burning of biofuel is more clean, use of machines for preparation of lands, sawing, harvesting is contributed to the greenhouse gas emission.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The price of the biofuel is expensive</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Due to the high production cost, the biofuels cannot be sold at reasonable price. Therefore most of people still rely on fossil fuels. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> </div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5)<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;">    </span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Reduce biodiversity</span></b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">: Growing crops for biofuel generation is often monoculture. So it has relatively low biodiversity.  Forested areas have to be cleared to be growing food crops. So it disrupts the food webs and reduces the regional biodiversity. With the growing of crops, animals, microorganisms and plants pests can be introduced. There is high probability to spread those pests into natural ecosystems and displace the native species. The scientists tend to introduce genetically modified plant spices which are insect pest resistant and increase in energy content for biofuel production. Those GMO can spread into natural ecosystems and cross with wild species. It may cause genetic degradation.  <o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> <span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <br /></div>

First Generation Biofuels

Biofuels are introduced as the renewable energy resource. Biofuels are borne with high potential to minimize the greenhouse gas emissio...

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